© 2007 Institute of Current World Affairs
The Institute awards long-term fellowships to develop a deep understanding of an issue, country, or region outside the US and to share that understanding with a wider public.
Institute of Current World Affairs - Home Page

Below is a hobbled text version of a PDF document.
In order to read the actual document please click the link below and register if necessary.
(One-time registration is free and very quick.)
Read article

6/8/1948 - Szechuan Province; Local Government Family Chia, Pao Hsiang, Hsien by A. Doak Barnett

NOT FOR PUBLICATION INSTITUTE OF CURRENT WORLD AFFAIRS No U Consulate Chungking China June Mro WalZer S Rogers Institute Current World Affairs FifZh Avenue New York Noy Dear Rogers I reurnod Chungking after exremely ineres conditions rural areas I follow original Ou I oelieve experience worthwhile I Instead settling absorb atmosphere I moved around considerably study local government politics startingrig ooomandworkinguptotheHsienandAdministra District specific region In region I Io major officials various levels governent ordinary people places where I workdo I general survey local farming region I fortunate meeting young Chinese students studying various aspecls region terial which collecled useful The language problem disturbing first Although Szechan dialect closely relaed Northern andarin differ beeen dialects comparatively great For thing major tunes reversed language which basically confusing least I stumbled along however communica people hough sometimes difficult A young instructor ducation ovement College Reconstruction companion interpreter He English Northern andarin fairly occasionally conversed people using rather strange combination Szechn dialect Peiping dialect English Somehow other worked In report I included considerable amount detailed formation which I gathered although I I would include I repor catalogu facts after details together composite picture local vernment rsgion general economic social political setting within which govrnmenl works I ended project abruptly I planned While swimming springs District Officer Third Administrative District I received forehed return Chnngking trealed With stitches healing rapidly One Pmerican Vice Consuls Yale classmate after tomorrow leving motor Chengtu Skang Province It unusual opportunity something little known region I going It about weeks I write I rturno Sincerely yours Barnet NOT FOR PUBLICATION fetes Local Government Szechuan The province Szechuan Southwest China encircled mountain ranges which define geographical region political about Sweden population exceeds Of France No otherprovince Cha contains people It currently between million people crowded Szschuan Basin The reoional title Basin oricinally years eozrapher Von Richtofen appropriat descriptive color fertile color caused layer stone underlying region In basin somewhafi misleadig however Except Ch_engtu Plain province almost ientlrsly covered hills mountains Th hills normally about sqeezed between innumerable valleys which twist contours ofthetop ography The basin correct nonetheless outer boundaries fozmed barrier anges whlch higher cutoffSzechuanromtherstofChina Throughthese tains passes adjacent areas traditional approachito basin through awesome gorges which angtze River carves eastward descent province Hupeh Szechuan means rivers Chinese The Yangtze fifth longest river world artery system which dralns province It complicated network tributaries important whfch Kialing Lu These rivers principal means distance transport Vince ether streams which important irrigation Land transporhation province primitive undeveloped Before there single wheeled vehicle Chungking large economic center Today largely result wartime lopnen kilometers roads these mostly constr simple crushed conmect imoortant popula centers There short railwabs transport first projected passenger Chungking Chengtu Is conpleted transportation practical region transportation still pedonantly function Of strong humin backs Narrow stone paved paths highways trade areas served waterways Steam navIgati Ys ngtze I ialing modern airlines touching C unging Chengtu revolutionized transportation province ffects revolution Although level scarce Szechuan water abundant lainfmll varies inches North inches temperate moist climate excellent agricul The province garden appearance Tees numerous particularly hilly ground aspect landscape everywhere predon insntly green Agri culture adapted remarkably nature terrain Terraces cover creep steep hills exceed egrees completely devoid cultivation irrigated fertilized Conseqently areas there three crops The inportant which anything deter characteristics economic region This idiately identifies Szechuan reglon large covering Central south China Although Szechuan unique acteristics culture essentials similar whole Southwest China Centnal South China Agriculturally Szechuan distinctive variety products Everything grown anywhere country grown It sufficient agricultural products except cotton which althouh grown oorthern province imported oeighbo2ing provinces Hopeh Shensi Even partial Szechuan agricultural products ipressive potatos apples oraoges tangerines pomeloes cherries peaches pears persi grapes ginger tobacco kaOling millet buckwheat beans sugar peanuts mustard opium indigo camphor sesame vegetables bristles The couId extended Some products aeoimportat exports Tung bristles paticulariy important because foreig demand these products China urgent necessity accumulating foreign exchanEe Mineral resources abundant Coal widely dlsrlbuted throughout province Szechuao percent China Prope significant figure might centratlon deposits Shansi Shensl exists scattereddeposits Salt abundantdhas ducedfouneds ofyeas InthefamousTellutsingwells 0ther Impott resources Include tlmoy asbestos llmeston mercury graphite copper elnnabar copperas silver sulphur saltpeter s0meatural petroleum FOrests dense In southwest province Szechua poten tiallties hydrelect development excellent IsChly ed0wed called enthusiastic people however p0pulato density about eached maximum limit eisting conditios eople living Szechuan arefor ChlneS sto6k predominant South Cnral Chlna short eergetic hardy I westepat provi however aborlgiooal which Chinese racially These tibes Ichpactice slavery illicit cultivation dtrad oplumand periodic raids Chinese settlemts largely isolated eiciude L01o Miao Hsifan significant nerically however Jo rityChinesemSechusharewithe stofChi Co cultural hritage With philosophical toical lingUstic roots which getherasanationdespiteregionaldifferentiation In addition oweve rgional Consciousness developd centuries Of relative isolation which distinIshes themas Szechuese They think selves Szechuese Chinese Sehuan incorporated political stuctu2e China Pope until Ch Dynasty duIng Third Century B C Pio istinct apart recelved strong culual Influences India China Once states Pa Shu which Szechuan conquered Ch Shih Huang Ti however becam important source materials agricultural products whlch helped whole country Since Sze chuaz important provinces China Because emotenessand isolatioo however Szechua ejoed facthas amounted local autoNsmy separatism currlng theme history It Was theme which recurred RevolutiOn When October revolt Wuchang weakened Manchu Empire qUietly collapsed revolt spread Szechuan authority disiztegratd For several years province split private regions controlled military eaders collected their taxes maintained their alternately fought shaky alliamces amonthem selVes Taxes collected decades advance Personal fortunes And general State cha0s amachy existed Finally these military leaders named Liu Hslag emerged strongsst group state He firmly established power defeated deals adopted important competitors Although eformer hismili least reduce confusion chaos Then Silo Japanese Wa rodern history beganto catch Szechuan Thewar gradually forced Central Government Chia interior The first Nanking Hankow Then Japaese caughh G0venment packed moved almost could Szechuan Prior Torces ideas West Which infiltratin China baely trated mountain surrounded rembtemess Szechuam But capital moved Chungking horde people Government includihg technicians bureaucrats businessmen intelligeotla Theywere catalytic agents process fermentation change began Szechua Industries Ines bored unexploited esources Roads constructed Every effort Szechuan arsenal support against J For Seven Government China Szechuan stronghold The began deteriorated cynical pessimism Government theless Important political changes place Sz echUan duing period Some years before csztral Govern recggnized legitimacy Liu Hsiang regime because Could little Now however localismcould tolerated about Cntral Government formulating plans westward Liu Hsiang somewhat ysterlously A provinclal regime which little branch Central Government established At first Chi Kai shekheld Go veror cocurrently humerous other positions Chang Chin eventually Governor During foll0Wig years Szechuan first since Revolution really integrated political nistrative structure Nationalist China Then The migration which bought millions Chinese country West eversed Most The political power shifted again lower Yangtze Industries packed Sze chuan agalnbecame kwash again People began forget about potsn tlalltles ofWostChina andabout comparlso theyhadawnbe Chlna wartime atlons Opening West United States But which could Complete erased Szechuan definitely China politically administa tlvely ithadben ysars Al dustrie Stayed particUlarly aound Chungkin fomed anucleuso arsenals operating mines mills cotton factories Which loked might permanent Despite inteEration Szecua adminis trative fabric Nationalist China whole however political fores began reappea province The names cropp again T generals ranked Liu Hslang local politis still going strong TeShh became Governor Szechuan Liu Wen Governor neighboring Sikang P Wen military cozmnader important tegic overlapping border Szechuan Hupeh These Central Government appointmnts tended restore political status In Chen provincial capital which second largest province often called Little Peking because themal center Southwest unsavory machl natlos began place rumblings trouble Were Madame Liu Hsiang Cornered marke Te Hsi began favoritism relatives Central Government getting taxes which expected Student riots riots mishandled As Chinais civil dragged however Central GOvernment remember Szechuan still major arsenal important source supplies The Nak authorities things Ing Chengtu In Central Government suddenly alpointed Governor SZechuan Wang Lin Wang Szechuan general Liu Hslan peiod considered eliable Teng capable stabilizing adeterirting situation Szechuan His moked beginning unrest coming arsenals going Teng temponarily Shanghai irest adame dided szechuan still remains background however In May Commuistthrust North Shensi almost touched borde province frightened peopie Communists weredefeated Nationalist troops Tsung Ma Hung Captured Com mUnst indicate party cells throughout Ehe province althOUgh iregula units which beCommunlst there Communist aetivity Of importance Szechuan since Lo swept through province middle thirties All Szechuan quiet areas China spite growing apprehension civil eventually engulf Southwest The government Szechuan today conforms pattern established Central Government latlos Structure therefore local governent consideed representative local g0vernA throughout Nationalist China AS might expectsd however content local politics distinguished teformal famewok administration fluenced local conditions andradltions But degree local government 6verywhere National Chi The rules Central Govern merit there local variations played A FamilK Lin Hsiu ching Chinese farmer He member First Chia Twentieth Pao Hsieh Ma Hslang which Is Fourth Ch Pa Hslen which longs Third Administrative District Szechuan Povince In lowest coramon denominator Chinese political There millions throughout Ghina They hsing olhundred nameS people Collectively Chia agricUltural society Althoh go4ermet uthoitles sforget It China government hlnese polltial hiePachy Lin legal satus status ndividual He Is head0fh lSfilywhichgiveshi political title Nead Huo household Until recently other membersofhisfllywere notexpected factad Ight 0paPtiClpate In plitical actiity jVldualS efily spoke acted forethe wh61e With position duties responslbi ities Well amily largely respon SiDle actiOns children As modern Chinese legal political thought developed influence Western theory practfCe ective family responsibility social ember discedited pactice n0tbeen elimlnated tradition Is strong eWesten Cneptlon indivlduai rathe tfily basic political al6ady altered Li posltio somewhat In theory In voting repre Sentative totheNatlonalAssemblyandtotheLeis1 Yuan example adult members family ndividually The practical importance change however For thing those bodies remot realm comprehensio understandin Lin Hinself nothing family They knowledge either issues pBrsonalities involved level overment unless prodded above would prefer bother whole 5usiness Even members Lin family intensely interested casting their highest rpresentatlve China almost certain family would block custom tradition which immediate important Lin His family legislation passed Nanking Lin unquestioned position family basic political furthermore challenged organiza local government national recognize family rprsntatiVe thefamily The every houshold includingLin right respon sibility elect Chia serve member Pan People Assembly The other mmbers Of family participate adults Lin direct participation local government further thePao PeQple Assembly however Each level government above chosen level immediately below direct connection electorate As household however Lin important member another oanization which portant Government That orEanization farnily extended kinship which includes families vicinity The loose grouping rSlative tends exists Western countries It joint worship ancestors It maintains ancestral graves temples shrines Sometimes joint It social security group credit borowing organization In addition maintains informal system family justice leaders solve dispute their pestige members claniline ensnare their havior family injured The recognized status structur niZed governent under oational ifluenc members considerable Perhaps Lin important Chinese society though economic sphere He closely iotegrated baslc production which China agricultural economy Division speclalzatiOn function progressed China exist cetaln extent within Lin Eaoh member hashis orhernctlens dtogethertheyforma operative supping production Lin director Thwork eflnite laBOr familyd distributed Even Lin Work probably would dlfficultto cempletelyfrom O collective scooomic effrt Raft Zily undoubtedly income If ecIVed ysulus abovesubsistce equismenS Woul emittedback Lin I Lfily llsieh Ma Hsiang r6gion COti ySiOe moved gzecuam ceotraT ChinaabOte oftheing Dynasty Theyeepa takeOvd large ration whieh almost depoapulated nooious Szechua bandit Chang chuhg Lin hmSelf bonin faroushere henwtesbU which haseve ad1chile seven efWomhave LifebaSe never aenant hasalwaysbaenatfa Theehasbeeny change imprOvement inhis status duing century hasv_y littleoshowmatetall labor Howee chilrZ selfnevehyeducatio andiscomtlyilliterate He Sons Ko Lao Rui ethes Society which influential locally The which farms consists several scattered slices which squeezed betwee plots which neighbors Althether It extremely difficult trans local neasures English terms I illus trate complications encounters A measure A variable measure expressed tsrms output Sometimes farme Lin esents amount Which theoetlcally uhusked At other alth0uh frequently ndlcate amount which theoretically produce quantity husked Ice which divided accordln terms Istln landlord tenant landlord The which locally three times picul which official measure pescrlbed national Very oughly however average about which sixth Although supposed produce unhUskd whethe depends fators addition Lin skill Rice pests arecommon parti cular ywhen heavy frost iwinter before Water uncertain Rainfall abndan cultivation right tiros disastrous results There adequate irrigati0n canalsin Lin region depends Hi flooded seedlimgs ready transplantation theit small fields early May there toomuch immediatelya transplantation injured Depending natural precipitation rather controlled irrigation Lin iduces major The reason cannot draining Other crops during winter farmers assued water supply He fields stand winter minimum needed moisture Spring rains RegardlessofWhetheronot Lin tanofrice actually produce6 Of unhUsked terms tenan require about outpUt landlmrd sometime during eighth month Ofte lunar Calena after harvesting His isfixed percent theoretical produce All secondary crops othBr which grows rough rouod adjacen fields entirely however The which gives production about average vicinity Three standards sharing preva The tenant farmers percent areas little percent In actual Lin recently produced about uhusked This means unhusked edible himselfand family addition secondary crops which grows This adequate A single person Eood appetite almost during course There seven personsnLin houshold Ice As consequence although producer Ice buyer Furthermore since Subsistance egion reasonably farmer should surplus momey income which supplmen supplies sugar table tobacco fertilizers cloth temporay busiest planting vesting periods almost farmers ncludlng tenantS It necessary A combination little places heavy burden Lin fellow tenants eglon Livelihood marginal problem etting enough E Because basic prlmaily Lin heavily secondary crops grown ground adjacent fields narrow ridges between fields whlch cannot cultivation These crops include small amounts Kaoliang wheat barley beans peppers miscellaneous vegetableS All canpoduce these crops Is consumed family The source small money income which trickles family coffers every straw weaving This byLin daughter wives daughters virtually every other fsmme region Thee woven laboriously carefully prepared wheat stalks nearby market village whence Eo ultimately markets povln6e The weaving industry based local skill whiCh covers arelatively small region Spclal handicrafts reglooal specialization dlfferentiatig proucti0n various rural dlstIcts within broader region whlchHsieh Ma siang belongs Money income sufficient minimUm needs however gobLin currently CNC Even though borrowed money members interest 0psrc6nt month Farming isback breakinworkfoLnandhis obse2ves Chinese ultivatlo emaked St adenSn Thee expressive accurate econom phaseology labor intensiv Land scarce capital goods prohibitively expensive dlfflcult apply chltivatlon while relatively plentiful cheap As aesult although pmoduoti reasonably productivity In terms means Lin little mechanical living It hours sloshing through pioIng their fieids carsfully plant iviUally tread endlessly wooden distribute water between thelm terraced fields finally stalk Their capital equipment simple woeden grinding machine husking simple tools buffalo They particularly tunate buffalo because theirs In addition buffalo contributes family supply organic manume The famly lives rambling house belngs their landlord located rioht mansion The house itself quite place share another tenant family central house courtyard whsre family womks relaxes ather ceremorlal contalnln laque dedicated their ancestors The animals therea several chickens buffalo under annex adjacent kitchen Except court ceremonial house exterior windows completely enclosed protection against robbers Seveal tained plenty noise strae approaches family burglar alarm Ths walls house thick bocks others simply bamboo lathe covered plaster The poorest houses thatched roofs local standards Lin house Although dirty snelly qdlte spacious constructed Life members Lin fally iVolve there llttleto relieve monotony There almost organlzed receatlon there diversions But family pleasure enjoyment little things They sojoy feathery bamboo trees clustered about their house mountains which their green valley They enjoy their They oygoln Villaeomket Althoughtheyo zoose there Impesslve about people tenant farmers The hoiz0ns Ln family however llmted almos limited their topogphlcal horizons which mountaios surroundig valley W doesn include Lin family iormed tclpatiog members Lin himself He meyio oTman Stalin Although Of civil progress China clear about still He never Tse Chlag Kal He heard Kuomlnt never contact himself knowledge interests confined inedlate surroundings people knows problems himself faces Although accepts There certain equilibrium between evioment physical Social which apparently quite stable He aitating aaisttenancy although Would He indlgnat against although would because things He conserv accepts things There Is llttls colleotivellfe shared hlsneighbours In North China In Lin egiOn faeLs villagss North Pobably least thenatu Of teraln theeof agrlcnlture prevalent fmers housh01dsescattered throuout armlng rathe concentrated village Us farmers filies house occasionally dozen house clustered together group there illages The villages market villages which serve economic focal points Scattered Farmer Lin house ciuser seven houseswhicheperchein curvinararoun Of Small These seven houses ogeherformheFirSChiaofheniehPao Hsieh Ma Hsing Chia System governmen ainistratlon history China It developed areas during first lleni A D Elevnth Cen It wasmade national system brated Chl reformer Wg An At ainis units fifty dfive hundred filies Changes however during Ch Mchu Dynasty One hdred filies caled spectively P Chia Pao The system acontinuous history however Under Republic lapsed first Chiang K Government revived principally because believed efficient system military purposes mobilizing people At however officers Including lowest levels appoirted above Durlngothe Sino Japanese Wa steeps taken convert system partial government In innovations introduced which local government cluding Hsiang elective epresentatlve It several years these changes operation effect Hsleh Ma Hs least The newChlnese constitution provides extedlng government Hsien Povin Goverrmmnts practical toward udoubtedly difficult Although Chia Pao Hsiang governing units respects thelr orgaoi zatlom theSr ctions their responsibilities regulated national statutes supplemented provincial regulations Local practice always conform details these regulations Itdoesconformiimpottespects Itiseport I Will describe actual theoretical tuatlon areas I discuss eFirst Chla Twentleth Pao Hs Hslang whlchrmeLbe contalns total Hu h0us01ds cdedInto cluster houses Alth0ughd Is pslciy compact cetateth Chiai reglo salrly typlcal hOusehOlds ldl0rds their teats It therefore microcosm ldlod relatlonshlps typical whOle reglo IS distinction between landl0rds tenants manneof living Thetetahe poducers The landl0ds produce sequetly llvea leisurely phistlcated A barge facts about thepeople First Chia clarify differences betwee landlords tenats elationshlps betweente groups landlordss VO gentleman several vIcni ohishoUse iotheegio He lives fsily servants temendous three story brick mansion known local people simply foreign house because style construction other ndlords similarhouses The mansion large comortable It reinds tewrlte econonic theory clled consplcuous consumption This ntleman rents tenants lives incbme Being alandower landtax which according flgures mounts little percent which receives He iherited never fioancial trouble When tutored family school there literate He travelled althoughhe oever szechuan Province considerably better informed general tenants His quiet He reads relaxes visits friends He enber Of Brothers Societ Kuozintans Unlike landlord friends participate activy politicS The 6thorlandlord isayoungerman of55whohasless lives modesly He howeve inherited himself He ucated family school travelled deaii Sze0huan Province He belongs B rothers S cietybutnottotheIuominang However politics present Pan Representativo Twentieth Pan theHsiang People Representatiie Assembly The tenants 0these landlords The amount lazdwhich Vri considerably however The rgest am0unt Is smallest One Ac tually tenants depend their velihoodrily farming The other althoughfarmers have_ So litti depend primarily sec0ndaryioccupati0ns One bristles processes resellS One raises ducks One kaoliang One makas mosquito The others depend imarily wages which perform nearby areas Allo families quite heavily income weaving Th average hoSsehol these tenants contains persons None tenants owned bought All three buffalos One measure their struggle existence families altogether children during childhg0d About family heads three schooling Could hardly called literate Thre really write One middle school gradate sImost farming His maitres mosquito works wages tried restaurant village None Of enants SZechuan Although their landlords members BroShsrs Society tenants tenants political above level Pa0 No Chia longsto isinterestedintheKuomintang These amilies landlords tenants t0gether political Chia occasionally together informal sesslons whiohare called Chla Affa M They elect Chi Chief eVery years At pesent Chief iWithout salary tnant farmers literate bel0ngs Brothes Scletybut economically IS pesed Chla He heaVily making kaoliang winsin addit ntOfarmlng keepthe lmembersofhishoush0idfed Thefunctions theChla Chl theChiaAff Meetings aresimple They responsible carrying orders above their Pao Chief W eneVer ordersand instructions passed Chia together explains Chia organiZed InStructlons reach Of All household heads members Pao People ASsembly A Pao In Twentieth Pao isieh Hsiang there contalning population Sg4 peson Altogeth there Pao approximately Hsiang The Twentieth Pao oughly square It picturesque country The valleys bright ysllow after tansplanted terraced fields olling hills break landscape irregular pattern There clumps trees bamboos hillsides along narrow streams which meandSr peacefully toward distant rivers Narrow pathos person through paddy fields Coectng scattered farnhouses eadlng village By these paths small stone shrines containing carved figures earth which painted bright almostllvid olors Famers straw fields there lumberinE water buffalos It quiet peaceful Altog ether there households Pao Two these small establiShment which equivalent Ameica general store hihouseholds farmers landlords Of cultivable owned landlords within Pao icluded 149tot absentee Some latter ulGdoubtedly nearby Chungking The landlords Szechuan gravitate places Chug Ch In Chungking enter business trade I ChenEt theyexert strong influence Pro 1ncial Government They almost always invest Ing reinvesting because taditionally secure investment China because other outlets investment limited The start depreclatlo money discourages accumulati fluid savings Or capital Withi months pattern shaken slightly basically changed App rehension Communists ultimate exprop riatlon forced values doEiconSiderably It repoted landlords Chengtu regi0o selling their place Hsieh Hsiag ladlord households Twentieth owners cultivate their owner cultivators owner tenant In wholePao there roughly perceot farmedby tenant farmed their The total agricultural produce cultivable Pao amounted other ralns tatoes beans other miner The famer Pao ralaed This reEion organized politically Pao conunity Its members donotformanintegratedgo Lin sfamilyiSa closely organlzatlon first Chla already crlbed together proximity elations between landlords tenants livig there notue allChla however andHsiehaHslangis natural economic region centering market village The TWentioth Pao however merely arbitrary admini stratlve district demarcated basis population It however c0veiet intermediary between Hsiang Chla which facilitates administration The characteristics organized governzent appear Pao level There Pao People Assembly whiCh supposed every sometimes meetings arepost during thebuslest farming periods Every hoUsehold votlng member Assemly The function oftAssembl electi0 Pao Chief Assistant Chief Thee officers serve The Chief nominal salary enough Assls Chief remuneration The Incumbent Chief Twentieth Pao tiwely young fgmerly merchant Pao He dUate School therefere literate Normally farms dutes Pao Chief himself fiend itscessary laborers He energetic young interested eponsibilitles He Joiner He belongs Brothers Society Red Gang members Kuomlntag Hsieha Hsiag The Pao 0fficeis Chief Chief himself spends Of makin rounds households Pao going Hsiag Office chatting Hs Ch market village Hsieh Hsiazg The Pao Chief orders instruc tions siang Office carried Sometimes involves nothing calling Chia Chiefs together passing along Sometimes involves decisions orders above implemented In these cases usually presented Pao People ASs where democratic decision voting To other officers under Pao Chief They nominated appointed Hslang Chief Both obsad offiCers receive small salary Population Offlce His track births deaths arrlvals departures SUbmit regularpopulation reports Hsiang Office The other Pao Troop Commander sponslble handling orders instructions scriptio organizing defese I additi0 Pao Is supposed Economic Offlce whose Job assist collectioo Ufilled Twentieth Po The Pao Troop Commander Charge aloosely organized squad about which 0sometimes calls Self Defense Troops sometimes Volutee Poli They simply within Pao possess thelr They receive training iactlVe almost theoretically provi fense required eccasiooally called together robbery increases Chinese custom payinE debts atethat efinancial expeoses Po They eonslSt money necessary paper incidental supplies necessary Pao officers write reports carry their duties The money required expense decided Pao Assembly eolec members The salaries Pao officers however Hsiang Office Another Assembly assist Troop Comnander conscriptees arrives higher authority This comes An which simply Pao provide between certain limits An order originates Central Government passed quotas being constantly redivided basis population lower administrative areas reaches Pao hover reached bottom omewhere Theoretically Pao Troop Com mander handles drawing names eligible Pao In however seldom The people Pao though Assembly collectively ether conscriptee This means Pao quota Such usually bought neighboring current price CNC O00 O00 The soldiers procured manner usually flotsam Society cannotmakel dsperati0n Ths proge illegal according National which eTorced locally accepted system filling Conscription quotas Occa sionally Hslang Will enough conscrlptees wholeHlang thereby relieve Pae responsibility Whether Hsiang Pao gives material which often provided Chinese National Army Apart tions deciding scription quotas Will filled thePao 0fficoe expenses should howvarious orders instructions Hslang Office carred Pao people Assembl I members course discuss commo problems occasloally Assembly Xpected formulate effect enforce policies authority The Pao Assembly oneliok coecting higher authority gIying voice Hsiangaffalrs ItelecNs Pao Representative tothe Hsiang Representative Assembly The Representative Twe ntieth Pao landlords First Chla Hslang The Chin Special Dis difeet others essenials Pa HSlen Ech Inte gated economic egion cente market villae Occasionally Hsiang Chen contains market villags theyhavemnbu theseaemelyeceptionS whichPovethUle Ifhpopulaio ofhaket village large enough oganied Paso egion Called Chen If villae isothatlagetheeglonscalledaHsiang There Iso distinctlo between vaious Hslang divided three grades basis ation None these distinctions Very important however All HsianE Chen essentially region govern The Hslang Chen highest level local government In China today This means highest level which selects local ekecutlve officers In HSleh Hsla other Hsiang Hslang Peoples Representative Assenbly composed Of repesentatlves chosen Pao Assemblies elect Hslang Chief Assistant Ghief Calling Hsing g0vernmg however should obscure It completely independent Although Hsiang Chief Assembly manage local affairs receive orders Hsien Government which local pe0ple almost control which carried The Hslang really govern Img admini sratlwe division Hsin HsieH Ma Hsian Hsiang highest grade This means market village which contains slightly people Organized Pao large enough classified Chen nonetheless sidered important market regions region The market village itself called Hsieh Ma Ch Which means The Market where The Horse Was Rested Local tradition perhapsmyth maintain dUing Three Kingdoms period famous general Kingdom Shu named Chang Fei ested horse Spot where village emple stands It might justifiable Hsieh Ch market Own villag seems appropriate layout It really nothing street yards A alleys branchofff0m dings mushroomed around confused iregular pattern village centers thoroughfare Local eopie matter village marke Steet This street stretches distance about three quarters It straight partbut follows gentle undulation terrain The central covered which raakes gloomy arcade Open Shops sides Street sctlon St retch Out center directions shops which Ide street The width narrows goers middle street which never wider alley tapers impercep tibly country paths pears fields This street intmediate envlons economic heart surrounding agricultural region Theia beats regular pulse Each lunar month divided three periods fourth seventh market Early orning market network transportation arteries Hsing serpentine paved pathways filled farmers their families threading their toward market FOr hours temperature village rises The street milling people jostling other naturedly passing latest gossip catching buying selling Then afternoon drift toeir street market On colddays shopkeepes artisans Work aratlon market street itself almost erted A mangy scraps scattered Chickens wander mlessly about shopkeepers wives nurse their babies their doorsteps disturb gloomy atmosphere street The markets where their produce actually street itself located imits immediate vicioity There separate market place product Pigs under village Rice other grainse soldo small street Straw steat othereod villsge There places poultry sugar almost evorythig local farriers poduce buyers putchase these ducts The street itself however farmers filles aaderiDg salesme village their trinkets gadgets uarkt adjacent towns either fifth eighth sixth ninth schroDization benefit itinerate necldlars buers farmers however villageshops whose purpose serve farmer surrounding cultural countryside There internal market goods village village inseparable agricultural tryslde The village market where farnes their produce workshop where artis necessities required farmers place where merchants factured goods Drought nearby cities gathering point social intercourse local govern merit There total shoPS Hsieh Ch There shops which stationary vegetable caodles Chinaware medlcioes incense other funeral supplies coffins opottery metalware tools sauces shoes Clothing camdy scrolls seals cigarettes tobacco kettles bamboo utensils truks boxes Wooden tOols The small blacksmith Shops butcher shops Chinese pharmacies neral stores xcept eneral stores specializes products The degree specialization illustrated drink shops which ciden numerous other establishment There arelT shops houses combined restamrants S makrs noodle shops Candy shops house genoral stbres cambned restaurant onesweet drink Wine mediclne confoined restaur sweet drink combined house sauce combined house Bine candle maker combin Hsieh Ma siang partially entirely sufficient basic necessities needed supplies which provided oither farmers themselves handicraft shops village mountains nearby Coal bamboo plaster coarse paper other materials produced tisans mounta Some necessities brought outsid siang however Although limited amount cloth farers houses cannot really cDmpete width machine cloth which bought Chungking slsshere Some building materials foodstuffs sugar vegetable imported nearby regions In addition Chinaware foreign goods mlsCellaeous manufactured products imported places province The foreign goods which foreign stile goods imports abroad places Shanghai Tientsin The source these impots Hsleh Ch nearby Pei located Kialing River Pe S Chungking which conne industrial center thewhole region A onnects Hsieh Ma Ch Chungking trade travels route It miles Chung water route although longer sewer cheaper There tablishments Hsleh Ma Ch which might called factories Both shops producing THese small dingy workshops strangsl medieval atmosphere Almost light relieves gloom within shops Q large gound plodding blind folded On other theoil pressed inprimitive pesses which operate wedge principle A tipped perhaps suspended ceiling Swung batter metal wedges horizontal presses Each hammem accompanied wierd musical cries operator strikes wedge fraction press forces precious drops Of trickle below Hsieh Ma Ch Post Office during month May first small village history opened several wealthy Hsiang Not village street Health Station Hslen Governent tially snppoted Hsiang The villag social centB economi ThBre Recreative Club which meets every Sing ancient Chinese operatic tunes taught teachsr hired nearby village The members turns clanging cmbals beating drums singing falsetto voices This however limited leisure money participate The cipal recreation average farmer family takesplace market On these jugglers magicians soothsayers fortune tellers Hsieh Ma Ch perform enraptured clusters Children adults There opera stage crumblin center villae Idle Once twice however itinerate opera troupes perform there these occasions The village Hsieh Ch within walking tance parts ilsiag It located approxi mately cente Hsiang distance farthest poiot directiom about I0 between miles It serves populatloz people These people belong slightly housholds which tenant farmers tenants laborers owner cultivators 400elan lords merchants artisans professional public servaots The focal Government region market village Located which point village overlooks fields which stretch directions Hsiang Office It imposing buildin village consists central containing conference table under omnipresent portrait Sun Yat which offices There guard house gateway small courtyard front building This official oenmst house Un officially However muchbmsineSs transacted houses village street Two shops there Brothers Society imPortant There leaders commdnity spend endless hours discussing problems chatting about ever3thing general nothing particular The comfortable reclin chairs lining walls houses alost always filled These houses indispensable Hsiang important people usually there reclining their bamboo chairs In social setting withiDwhich Hsieh Ma Hsiang 0fficethe organ local government functions there groups extremely important One these groups organization called Brothers Society The other loGse conglomeration wealthy prominent citizens gentlemen gentry The Brothers Society secret society There nothing Secret about Hsieh Hsiang however EverybOdywho anybody belongs operates quite op6nlyo outlawed Central Governnent bother anyone concerned might added anyooe becoming member invited The origrsof society rather obscure accordiog theory arose uderground anchU Intellectumls about beginn Ch Dynasty three hundred It originated East China spread Westward probably xtensive stronger present SzechUan other country It outlawed ochus bcause underground opposition group Natiooalist Goveznmeot declared illegal It active oppositlo group powerful organizstion which Kuo mintang fears become oppositional Despite however belong Brothers Society Kuomintang simultaneously ostensibly purpose society promote eight eotalConfuclan virtues filial piety brothers sister loyalty superiors faithfulness courtesy shaze probity righteous sacrifice Actually however almost inevitably organizatio CbDsiderabl political significance In Chegtu Plai example society constantly iterfer directlj criminal activities development virtue Bad elements places givez society repation sterismo The opium trade theLolos Szechuaz example monopoly Brothers Society In Hieh HsiaoG societj operate directly politics lsbelled orgai zatio carrying crimioal activities political power oooetheless Almost people weait edcatpm members considerable control membership embership Brothers Society virtually paticipation local governmezt At present every officer Hsiang Office uembcr probably majorit Pan Chi members The looewolves Hsiang politics members society exceptional society The membership Hsieh Ma Hsiang include repesentatives economic classes heavily weighted favor upper class educated groups There different baches Brothes Society Hsieh Ma HsiaG Although different names subscribe priclples cooperate closely They differentiated mainly baslaof persons accepted membership cetrates educational political leaders anothe merchants The iortat pollticly Jen BeneVolence Society which majority politlcally minded comunity leaders belong The territorial sphere sooiet branches Hsiang They organizational connection innumerable bramches iother province informally connected members other regions welcomed taken Of Hsieh Ma Hsiang The Director Benevolence SocietY possesse He minent governmental affairs paint official present He Other officers chosen by_the members society Athough members society consldered brothers there various ranks grades which conered Director society meetings There regular meetings every which members expected attend One which principal business meeting takes place thirteenth fifth The other Which social gathering takes place Chinese New Year embershlp society theoretically based character applicant person introduced members considered The Beoevolence Society Hsieh Ma Hsiang estimated about members In respects societies fuctlo Xtra legal government The disciplin members The provide mutual defense social seourit And strong pressure persons group outside society Althou osteslbly soCialrather political organization Brothers SOciety there rspscts important rec0gzed government Hslan control management local affairs exerts atrong nflueces recognized government There branches other secret societies simila Character HsiehaHsiag Red Gang Green Gang Although members Hslang Office belong these orEanizations perso theore tically bel0g Brothers Society Red Gang Green Gang simultaneously persons compaatively small relatively uiportant The strength these soci6ties lower Yangtze Szechua The other important group Hsieh Hsiang posed local gentlemen These entry organized aomplstely cohesive Eroup heyare united comm0n interests friendship Their prominence primarily walth landlords All ofthem educated style family schoolS modern middle schools universite They recognized leaders community Onecannot define group exactly because fringes included there least would indisputably included local people The Owned these averaoeS largest holder group smallest These gBmtle wealth education ability culture leisure Their Opinions consulted important problemso pnntlyin analsis decid elected posts local goVernment their infuBnc exercised basis leadership prestige pressure Power thoughthey whose economic power concentrated Their opinions carry sufficient weight passed around favor Of person action people along Quite naturally leading roles various branches Brothers Society Often participate directly local overnment Of never politlcal Eight during Hslang Chief Assistant Chief Eleven currently active political positions One Hsiang Chief another Assisant Chief One Chairman Hsiang People Represen tative Assembly three others members Assembly Hslag Representative Hsien Couoc Chairman HslarEediatlon Com mittee three others mmbers Conmittee In other words either through direct particlpatlon indirect iofluence handful plays leading roles local government Trade craft guilds which important centers China almost completely absent HSieha Hsiang There guild which local butchers belong politically In active The political party Hslang Kuo mlntang It might going moribund however doubtful fnfluence Hsieha Hsiang Although there about Hs including posltions Hsiang Office joined party Hsieh Ma Hslang Branch exists paper There meetings Collection activities ofthe Kuomintang recent montns perhaps years although amnot Secretary titular Hsismg Branch merchant speds fraction Hsiag Hsieh Hsiag previously mentioned sidered governin Somere pects Its represeotctive b6dyis callsd Hsiang People Rpresetative Assembl membership unsalaried representatives serve These represeotatives elected Pao Pe Assemblies Sic latter cotain house Hsiang Hsiang Assembly popularly elected The Assembly meets Hsiaog 0ffic everz three _onths orinary sessions priocipal funtio Assembly elect Importat HslanG officers They elect Hsiang Chief ssistaot Chief Hsiang RePresentative Hsie Couocil Hsiaog ediatioo Committee Hsiang Property Custodia Connnittee They Can recll these oficers corruptio incompteocy The Assembly draws Hsiazg budget Hsio Governet approval before effect rorts officers elected although seldom sugges tions If Assembly formulates aythig sembling policy Hsie Government approval IfadisputebetweenthAssemblyandthe Hsiag officers elected results Hsien Goveroent rsquated solve occurcnce The HsiaN Chief follow Assembly recommendations Im practial dlffereoces opinion caonot resolved compromise Hsien ultimate abiter In practice Assembly little other elect officers already mentioned Thee Mdiatlon Committe board accord regulations should which sposiblefor administering justice There court lawin Hsiag All disputs setied committee basis equity For example accused robbery scort ediation COrnittee which hears sides decides whether Guilty poses settlement which accepted concerned Critic serious local problem Ithe rarecaseswere crime iscoittedtheman Chunking Local Court trial Normally would Hsie Local Court Pa Hsien nearby Chungking The edatio Connittee holds sessions market Every market mininum three conittee members handle cases brought before averaEe between market dcisionsmust concurrence committe members committee Chairman If disputes trivi informal meeting house If serious formal written report session Hsiang Office II committee members rospect command deference whole conunit Four belon group gentleme already mentioned The receive salarles The brought before ediatio Commlttee include petti criminal cases ealig mercial disputes personal argtuments trouble landlord tenant disputss The disputes between landlords teoants particularly important local persoo should stimates about these disputes decided favor lords This ncessarily there dlscrl minatlon against tenants simply tenants often forced cumstances position where cannot fulfill contrac obligations The Property Custodian Conittee seven iboard salaries which reaponsible supervising finances Hsiag protecting Hslang resources money grain Taxes collected Hsiang money subsidies given Hslen Goven andrlce Safekeeping Hslen Goern responsibility I handles Hslang treasury All grain monkey special Hslang Office Commite hires special officers guard No money withdrawn without special request which bears sgnatur Chairman Property Custo Conittee Hsiang Chief No withdrawals furthermore unless accordance eneral authorizations alread Hsian Assembly The actual administration Hsiang Carried Hsiang Chief number dministrative officers nominated formally appointed Hsien Government All these Salaried officers indefinite Excluding Chief Assistant eight officers Hsiang office There Secretaries Civil Affairs Popu abion Economic Affairs Cultural Affairs Hslang Troop Commander addition there Accountant keeps financial records Buyer purchasing agent secretary incoming outgoing reports Assistant Secre general handy clerk recording assistnt Chief In Hsieh Ma Hsiang these officers graduates middle School equlvalent college graduates Some government service professlo others landowners merchants profession The Civil Affairs Secretary prlmay responslblity national provincial mgulat concerni administrative 0rganzatlon prodeures For Hsian Office Pao Chla under organized prescribed personnel qualifications salaries accordance governing He haodles elections carre poper roper manner He isalso general ordinator various officers theHsiaNg Office He resposibl example admiistatlo recording owerhlp glsteriog transfers although actal Assistant Secretary He esposible opium suppressio there still opium smoking HsiehaHsiang isverymuchlessthan thereused Secret underground although Troop Commander carries suppressing which He responsible administering Voluntary Labor Service voluntary Labor SerVice euphemistic given national sstem c0mpulsor labor service According explained mmbers Hsien Government every bodie perform Voluntary unpaid labor Governmeot eVery Decis where labor Will ployed usUally Hsie Government sionallyaremadeatahigherleve The asithe military conscription quotas assigned Hslaog passed odowo Pao Chla As Cse conslcriptio substitute workers hired those afford The average farmer however cannot afford since period limited service Usually during slack periods farming calendar Unwilling The laborers collected nnder system anywhere Hslen other Hsien Eo Carrying their place where instructod They receive Theoretically provide their Pa provided workers sOmetimes Hsien Government sometimes tributions other members Chia Pao which Worke Not everyone required actualpracticetO statute every though everyone theoretcall liable The Affair Secretary considered rankinG appointed officer Hsiang Office Szechuan Provincial Governent ordered reorganization HsianG Offices which other Secretaries clearly subordinate responsible Civil Affai ecretary Wno title General Secretary reorEanization carried Hsieh Hsiang The resposibillty Populatlo Secretary simply complete statistics popula Hsiang He makes reoular reports Government The Cultural ffairs Secretary charge educa tional matters reguiar rePorts Hsle Bureau Education His actual rasponsibility limited pricipals Public Schools appointed diectly Bureau priclpals themselves select their teachers However controls portlo their salaries their money comes Hsiag their ration Hsien There sixteen Public Schools Hsieh Ma Hslang themrlmar schools Thirteen Pao PeOpl Schools afour curriculum threa entral Schools With curriculum I theory there supposed Pao People S Sehool In Pao probably years befere G0al reached Noethelesm Hsieh Ma HsianG oducatlonally better nearby HsianE becaUse about percent opulat literate The Troop Commander charge military police affairs actual supression opium smoking gambling maintenance order He yearly survey bodied between report Hsien Government He haudles details conscription He distri butes ration given families soldiers active As police chief forCe armed policemen guard house Hsing 0ffice These supplemented Voluntary Police Pao necessary If serious criminal offense cormnitted Hs policemen arrest detain criminal Hsiang Office Chungking trial The Troop Commander chage organization defense units siang According Chla Pan Hslan supposed organlzed tralned units Chla Chlefs Pan Chiefs Hslang Chiefs titular heads Pan Hslang Troop Commanders active connanders To defense organization Hsieh Hsiang Hsiang Toop Cormander received instructions Isisn something about proceeding plans organize defense Unit which trained local military experience He thinks force Will total about The Economic Affairs Secretar handles taxation Hsiang Office administratively charge budgetary matters The Hsiang 0ffce supportig nancially however importamt taxes collected aencies level Hsien Government A taxes though collected Hsiang Office There weights measures taxes every article which weighed measured villaEe market places percent The straw llkewlse subject percent These taxes collected market representatives Hsiang Office observe transactions collect buers There percent The Hsien authorities collect similar their higher There feasts which theoretically quite pactice amely exceeds percent collected There other local taxes books which actually cbllected The important local however Self Government This variable imposed PeOple Hsiang depends amount income required Hslang Office The Hsiang Assembly decides total divided among Pan according amount Of cultivated Pan collec landowners tenants The total income Hslang Office including Self Government Tax small however Hsien Government subsidizes Hsiang Offices going In Pa Hsien subid toHsleha Hslang larger Hsianz income taxes total Hsiang Office cluding subsidy still extremely small As sequezce budget allotted almost entirely salaries administrative purposes The goverrent officers teachers acouted percet total Office admlnlstratlv expenses required percent Whle routine build igrepair accouoted Wight percent Health education other salarles social welfare together amounted roughly percent small budget tobegi The fimanal position Hslang 0fflce factorwhich makes incapable doing muchyond maiting Office keeping routine administration providing conscrlptee workmen higher auth0rities anted carrying various orders passed This Of matter offact which 6ffiers Of Hsiang accept respo sibility They conceive their being actiVe leaders local economic development welfare improv In minds their primary responsibility things carry orders above For reason Hsi Affairs Meetigs which Hsiag Chief Pao Chlefs respects important Hlan Assembly sessions through Pao Chiefs instructions above toward their ultimats destination Lin Hsi chlng Bis neighbors In respects Hsih Ma Hsiang 31Paoand3IChiaself overnlngunits They dohave representative bodes elect execu tives The election thsse representative bodies their meetings thorou51 dratic In pocedural sense democr social position That about government however These bodies theexecutives ruledOn almost question higher oriies financially depsndent practically speaking their carry ordems received above This however progress toward government years On contrary introduction elections representative ssemblies procedural aspects democracy considerable importance local people there govern there bofore these things started One remember organized zovernment intrude itself aspects peopls lives higher authorities tically speaking runal Hsieh Hsiang local affairs realm government regulated tradition governmental groups families clans andsecret societies The Pa HsSen Government about miJles Hsieh Ma Ch Or opposite YangtZe River It fairly iaccesslble there intecourse other witten takes place between Hsien Hslang Twic however HsiangChlef attends special adminlsta meetings Hsiag Chiefs N attend Hsien Nagistrats office This Hsiag Chief attended tralnlng Class Hsien Government times elected Hsiaog ePresetative attends rgula sessi0nsof Council twice NaEstrate Of Pa Hsien finds visit Hsieh Ma Hsiang The continuous between Hsien Hsiang howeer provided special officer appointed HsienGovernment firmed Provincial Governent Ra Hsl divlded distri The Fourth Distr contains seven Hsian including Hsieh Ma Hsian The Director Of Fourth DistriC single officer WithOut Office without assistants visit Hsieh Hsiang least amonth tocheck general state local affair whethr orders instructions Hsie Goermmeot being carried He pOrts visits Hsie G0vernmemt AHsien Most Hsen cities Hslen capitals Chlra walled towns Which political centers In respectsre economic centers agricul tural regions surrouf iding 0riginally although peclse location these towns wasusu dater I I accordance With equiremgnt Chinese geomancy thewind water geneal location detemined Oductfvity cultural location transPorta facilties These towns consequently normally cnter transport corunications economic Hsien district dpend cultural surplus their hinterlaDd The functions towos varid They serve evern andadinistratioo defeose ositio garriso troops refuge agricultural population danger They living places ealthier gentry leave country urban sophisticated The focal points tzansport trade conerce cnters handicraft production which serve market towns their economic sphee influence The capital Pa Hsien pattern owever tical In really It cluster government buildings mixed rural urbansetting seves center government admioistration It artifi ceation Before Japanese War capital Pa Hslen great rawllng conercial metropolis Chungking which piled confused jtble banks Yaogtzead Kialing Rivers During Chungking Special unicipalit governed Executive Yuao Central Govcrnnent government Pa Hsien It moved south Yangtze about I miles Upstream Chungking buildingits headquarters between small villages factory dstrict Today possesses buildings carry administrative functions other respects It merely appendage Chungking Pa Hsien Hsien Szechua Province which contains Special District provi sional units which Hsien approximately Hslenn China It there bottom level chain conmand which begins Ceotral Government passes throush Proviclal Government All levels governret China including Hslen system admlnlstative centralism which authority concen trated thetop merely delegated those below It pyrsidal structure authority Ceotral Governiets Provincial Governments Hsien Governments As already authority influence higher authorities system centralized ernunt nistation extends below Hsien Hsien executive ofies appointed aboveo In espects Hsien ipotant level govermaent adwaitation Chin because althou iportt policy decisions hielevels iseHsienwch actualWok ofainistPationdgoveent feltdiectl bthessof thepeople eCentralveentd Povinelal Ooveent geographicallydpsycho logically atheP Pemote SPore opledthe facts inalaPeas There different Hsien Pa Hsien belongs hi6hest Pank because unusually large population average Hsien population under300 As Hslen grade organization slightly complicated larger others essential respects structure government Hsien The Chief executive Pa Hsien Magistrmte appointed Szechuan Government appointment provisional until confirmed Central Government The present Magistrate efficient educated univerSity graduate native Szechuan He nominates important subordinates Departments Heads appointed Provincial Government All minor fficers employees Hsien Governmmnt appointed agistrate alone approval higher authori The division responsibility function Hslen level confused administrative sense Hsien Government consists everal depart ments directly under Magistrate galaxy dependent bureaus offices Which supervised coordinated Magistrate strictly speaking respOnsible Provincial Government These independent bodies independent because Magistrate certain amount power located separate buildings operate their under normal circumstances The Setting these independent bodies makes possible higher authorities direct control certain governmental functions especiall collecting would these functions handled departments within Hsien Government itself Directly under Magistrate Hsien Govern Hsien Secretary Departments Civil Affairs Finance Reconstruction Social Affairs Militar ffairs Offices Accounting Statistics Population Land Administration Sp Officer The Magistrate final authority final sponsibility Hsien officers administrative offices sense local cabinet detailed The Hsien SecPetar H gistrate pincip administPative assistant internal afaiPs within Hsien Government He deals personnel problems checks documents coming office inter mediary between Magistrate DepaPtment Heads He Vice Magistrate takes executive esponsibilities Magistate bsent The Department Civil Affairs responsible general administration personnel elections training Hsien whole For example appointment Hsiang Secretar receive approval According there definite requirements qualifications various political positions those which belong governing levels Pespon sibility Department Civil AfaiPs followed although In practice universally enfoPced The PequiPements educational For exampaw theoPetically PequiPed middle school gaduate befoPe elected Chief Hslang Pa Hsien educational level local leaders unusuall about oethid Hsiang Chiefs college gaduates least school gaduate before elected Pao Chief This keeping Chinese dition schola offielal The povidesotrain officials executive positions through including Hsiang Each Hsien supposed Office Training Local Administrative Officers Pa Hsien tainlng Hsiang Chiefs carried agistate assistance Department civil A It function Department elections meetings Hslang Assemblies Hsien Council carried proper proper In vague Department esponsible maintenance public order practical uties involved carried independent bodies Police Bureau Defens ogaulzation The Department Finance coordinates financial matters whole Hsien The Hsien budget drawn Department submitted Hsien Council which final locally approved Provincial Government before finally accepted Accounts Accounting Office which makes egular epots duplicate agistrate Povincisl Government Custody Hsien funds vested Hsien Treasury ispart Hsien Bank institution owned artially percent pivate citizens partially percent Hsien Govern Collection taxes independent bureaum which I describe Job Head Department Finance coordinate these various activities He keeps Hslang finances every Hsiang budget perusal approval In Hslen funds every withdrawal receive written approval agistrate Head ACcounting office The Department Reconstruction charge development public works projects Hslen It Department should extremely important financial reasons activities Thee scholars students Chinese History asset important Important factor historical gowth Chinese 5tare successful mobilization State collective effortothe construction public partlculaly irrigation other hydraulic poJects essential agriculture which exists China The basis Justification highly eentalize admini stration country decentralized agarlan economy Is unrelae effectiveness which atnistPatlonomobilize collective dPesouPces accomplish tasks especially oonst public works dtioult accomplish locally This Is particularly regard Central ovemen Is important Hslen eaency Hslen verent doing thing Department Reconstruction The projects planned Pa Hsten Depart Reconstruction Soup tegoPtes develop Hsten capital itgation Poads oomanmi cations Plans oplng Hsien capital building mumber office buildings repairing local roads installing running water encouraging growt commePtcal To accomplish objective decPee issued stating chants owning certain build commercial establishments within stated period expropriated Hsen Government Plans tPPtgatton development include typea pPoJects esevotP pools canals PPopos build pesePvoiP pools oPiginate SPore special committees SormedoImtpuPp0seinlocalaas esepPoposals Depantment Reconstruction which assists local gettlng necessary Farmers ankoCnawchII provide Interestlosotlngo80percen theotneeded theother20percentmustcomefromlocalfds Ift project approved nstruetlon irrigation Is Hsien itself cooperation Provincial Goveent Cals badly needed Pa Hslen extslvely constructed would raise aEricultural ducivlty region tremendously ecanal OVer miles currently being section I completed eDepartment Reconstruction alsodraups recentlyfortee roads total mileage about ebude approved somewhat reluctantly Hsien Cocil Cocil insisted stretching Out period struction years Roads badly intheHslen atpresentaeatyHsivenomooP coectlon proJec Department Reconstction extension telephone Service A preaen phones Hslang HsianE 0ffices They managed Telephone anagemen Office which independen supervised Deparmen Reconstruction The immediae objective Deparen phanes insalled every Isian Office Another independen supervised Deparmen fleconsrucion Agriculural Devel0pmen Ofice In would expec major importance proJec carry presen involving distribution seedlings farmers various Hsien regular reports agriculural conditions weaher crops ProvinCial Govern personnel funds litle shadow orgsnizaion In constructing canals roads Depart Reconstruction works closely Hsien Volun LaborOrganization This organiaati6n handles system compulsory labor already described It assigns labor quotas Hsiang assembles laborers projects Department Reconstruction military authorities supervises labor management projects The Department Reconstruction projects plans described above indicative needs Hsien accomplishments donor begin actual needs In categories canals roads alone years before Government completes fraction Of Isneeded The reason Department cannot however inancial As Hsleha Hsiang Pa Hsien budget sumed expenses keeping machinery government administration operng public welfare development projects The Hsien contrast Hsiang supporting balances budget restructin activities minimum other routine administration In budget Pa Hsien between percent currency income almost income purpose salaries administrative officers Health relief social welfare reconstruction education development projects altogether accounted percent budget This tuati0n course Intl safely related prevalent lowlevel productivity Chln agrarian economy Thee large enough Surplus support Government administrative machinery This whole explana however In cases private accumulations ealth heavily taxed spite sources whlch Government obtain funds projects general benefit limited Furthermore surplus currently available amount collected taxea undoubtedly could wlaely If larger percentage invested Government policies pogams gradually helped level agricultural productivity irrigation cannals would Government proportion burden populace pesent Government itself would possible expand field operation In addition Departments already described Hsien Government Department ocial Affairs Dertment llltary Affairs The Department ocial Affairs various respo sibilltles On responsible social welfare which includes relief blind infirm At present little along again reason funds Another responsibility Department registration associations organizations Hsien All orgsnza tlons register their constitutions their membership their officers regular reports their activi The Department Social Welfare authority suppress dissolve organization considered versive ubversive which includes activity cormected Communism Communist there tendency stretch include activity group actual potential political significance other establi conservative groups Secret societies Brothers Soci officially ignored Suppression these secret societies dties Department ociai Afairs follows easieswmmo without exception every officer Depart mentorBureauadintheslenGoverent disclainsy coection Brothers ociety fluence society touout region difficult believe iortt member Hsien Government belongs Some actually belong conceal memben least eveal oficiall Theo numbe ogizations sponsoredb theDement Socialfais PaHsienas othetsofthecty eseinclude aHsienCbe ofCoecedanbe Labor Unions dFaes Unions If Hsieh Ma Hsig typical I howeveP Faes Unions exist papeP toPetically supposed coopePativeIfaPeoPgizationstouwch cImprOve theIP position In Hsieh Hsig thePe Is onemappointed leadePZ oPganizatlon thePe membePs obably activedImpoPtt oPgIzatlons comeden veillce DepaPbment Social AffaIPs apetnePous tPade cPaftilds PestPictlve monopolistic eeonoe oPanlzatlons which ppescPibe Pules membePs oPpPofesson dtyeld considerableeconoc poweP In Hsleh Hsig assbeen mentioned alPeady impoPtt because Is almost completely ePacte Guildsemoe ImportantIn bized aPeas whePe tPade aindustrial poduction hilly developea Pa Hslen basically tePPitoPial composed HSig silaP Hsleh Ma Hsig Hsien aefew Ich onsldeably dustPlal paPtlculaPly In iedia environs ofChIng Guilds tPef0Pe eimpoPttInthe eeonoc Pa Hsien whole almost exlstent Hsleh Ma Hsig ThePe appPo Xiely In Pa Hslen oPgized Hsi basis My themve house headquaPtePs Hsien GovePent eause theiP eonmlc powePthey polltieal siificance lopes HslenGovePentmustdealth talongth In addition egsteng oganzatons DePartment Social AffairS eponsble soPin etain public movements oPiginate ideas passeddo SPore CentralGovePen foPcedvitality Peach Hsien eDepaPent Social faiPs paPentlyD ndesire In Hsieh Hsiang asaconsequence mopopleonohave inkling about although sionally publicity Posters village These movements include New Life Movement vhich diSappoves among other things bling smoklng drinking spitting cosmetics People Health evenent approves eXerclse There Occasional athletic meets sponsoredby Gover nment however The Department illtary Affairs esponsible keBping survey bodled Helen seein soldiers families retired soldiers eceive their allowances carrying conscription orders It coo2dinates Troop Commanders In various Hslang Offices Conscritlon important The Department receives orders Conscription Area Office which handles Several Hsien must0duce quotas requested Between Pa Helen produced grist Chinese milltay machlne first against J civil campaignS spate prevalent system buying subsItutes Helen Many 80000 As cozsequence Helen suffering shortage agicultUra The character China labor IntensiVe agrarla economy times encounters anomalous situation where 0verpopulatd region reruns resources volume production whlch support given number people suffering shortage terms ofthe number bodied equired Up level production With existing technol6gically prlmit methods ducton Th Department ilitary Affairs respon organization National People Soldlers This Itle vague generic which includes between Of In theory suchmen organized unlts Chla Pae Hslang ecelve aCeta basic training after which eservoir conscription Volunteer Policemen In Pa Hsien organization instituted Oganization defense separate mater Self Defense Troops under Departmentof 0ilitary Affairs responsibility ceated People Self Defense Headquarters Thls organl zatioz serieusly approaching of0rgIzing training effective local defense units ratnal selective basis Their Is gettfng under toorganizesllbutwell tralned deense every local still necessary military equipmenmaini riflesditi6n coming It doesn fOrthcoming authorities privateoWned rifleS registered Hsien cient vintaEe They belong faers effective scaring 0ffrobbers oldys muchelse It azing defense region previOuSly thecostttalk abOUt unitsduringthe decadB andinview Central Governmt Spent years L WithJ tsh6k against rgion eiati0 leaders verymuchaprove oflocal defenS prepared If seadS toSze althou Centr Gwemsntaut talked about Iocalselfdefense eyhave noBaCke theiea inrealityo ythng r0m0tsgth Pa Hsien enbralGverent promo theorganizat0nofelfect Seifdfhs unitSin areas deubtd XeL pti0n rather Local leaes PaJHSISthat Central G0ernmnihL Kslack onfdnCe decen tralized militia C0om pe0ple hopsd atirude CestralGovernzentisohangisgWhat civiiw situation beCome desprat Overallmilitary Coadtheregi0niwhich Pa Hsien hamds OunkinGarrlson C0m mander Ha maintainsa branchiOffice adjacent Pa Hsien Q0vernment Just thingS arenoregular tro0p inPaHslen dtheGarris0n Commander doesn tInterfeeverymuchinHsienaffairs Any criminal cases political persons accused Communist activity turned Hsien Garrison Commander militaryc0urts Chtmgklng And civil spreads Szechu Clvil 0vernment Pa Hsien Will times crisis Military takes Uotil recently there ixthDepartment Hsie Govermeot Department Laod Admlnistaio In however Central Government order abolished Department replaced Land Administration Officer assistant The personnel Departments varies fourto One officer adinistration Chia Cia present basic Lan La lightened piece eislati0 which deals fundarental problems ioluding pr0blem_ tenancy Itstatestha aProvincialovernmet limit acreage private owned individual corporate A Eunicipal orHsien Govermet decide minimum dprohiblt furthe subdivision A Provincial Govern limit highest liabili incurrabl owned cultlvaing farmer However these optional In Szechuan knowledge other China The states A transfer owner private agricultural shall transfer position cultivate himself after transfer It states tenhntS 0flandlords absente cultivate themselves after having tilled given piece elght years contiuous apply competentdistict municipRi government behalf It states GoVer various grades requi purpose Creating tivatig farms expropriate purpose It further stipulates entai ahall mCBed eight value Ismd Full Implementation these clauses basic awwould iovolve fundamental evoluto existiog economic social atioships regio Pa Hs tenancy prevalent I North China tenancy Is important probl It difficult process implement theGowernment Went about jobenergetically Yet thelCentral Government eliminated Department Hsien GoVernment which responsible matters replaced Special Officer virtuallyimpotent atept implemeotatlon In Administratlve District which Pa Hsien belongs there unusual empting press measure reform which I mntlon later local government authorities giving moral support scale direct governmental attack probler possible without aInlstratlve machioery purpose The local authorities leaders Pa Hsien pathe toward ref6m abolition Depar tment Land Administration tangible proof Central Government reform slogans merely Shibboleths really interested implemeotation Land Law At level Hsi Government there idepedet Bureau Offices Dew which I already mentioned The important larger Departments Within Hsle Governmeo iself themselves broken three Departments Their personnel appointed Provln Government responsible ogaization within Provincial Government though supervised Hsie Magistrate The Imp0rtant Polic Burea Bureau Educa Tax Collsctio Bureau Land Tax Bureau The Pa Hslen Police Bureau maintains central pollce station Hsie capital branches diffeet parts Hsin The cental station officers pistols rifles Each braneh stations officers pistols rifles The Hsien polioe force therefore totalSslghtl addition aggreat small forces maintained Hsiag Office This formidable group seems adequate aitainig normal order The absence Hslen Local Court however ufortunate local leaders believe court Whud coser local problems Would better understandingof local conditions courts Chung The Bureau Educatlo ceation blishe place emphasis educatio handled Hsien Department The Bureau maintaining eistingeducational institutiens evelopment Ithough compulsory pimay attendance prescribed cannot 6nforced there sufficient schools thereafter there would economic problems which I Wont Head Bureau Of Ed ucation estimates pesent Pa Hsien percsnt childen school attend school about percont populatlo llterate There Pao People Schools Cntal Schools Hsie total enrollment approximately children clpals Schools graduates normal schoolor Squivalent appointedd supervised Bmreau Educa Educational standards texbooks curicul prescribed In Education Bureau E sSandardsare maintaineddthe regulations followed In addtion supervisin these primary schools Bureau itself maintns three midge schools public middle schools In Hsien nodal school agricultural school There tuition these sehools there booksd supplies A neW0gmIzatlon called People Education rgIzati rcently established Under Bueauof Educati0 atpresent slgniflct onadut educatlonsactuallybeingdoneby aprivate oganlzaton Mas Educatio Movement I lllYmo Say abOut which however backing local gOvernmental authorlties Ion Bu respon collectingall taxes Hsi enexcept those Hsiang Offices Ld S Col ected Direct Tax BUreau COodity TaxBureau which Centri nizations mostimportttwhich TaXCollection Bueau handless directly Slaught IBg T seven percent killed It importt because staple local income fr0mthistis Hslen Government The important Land Deed Tax iosed purchases The buyer ounting percent Vaie Six percent third income Prov Ovrn merit Hsien There Is Bs inessTon profits ncome interest percent respectivel income whiCh divided venly between Provincedthe Hsien The Bureau collects public Owned Hsien rented tenants In value however important point Hsie Government Land Tax which collected Land Tax Bureau Gain taxes financial suppo2t Chines Governmentfor hundmed years For number years Central Government abadonned tradltio patlce levied Land Tax money instead Sino Japanese War artially esult depeciat money tched system In Pa Hsien Land Tax colleC Colle Offices landowners Hsien September after harves paled unhusked Computation extremely complicated since plays important public finance China isleworth describing works Pa Hsien The basis imposing value All classified belonging grades depending quality Eoh omesixth given depending grade For ample first grads valueof lbwestgade Alandowner holdings totalled basls dthetrate expressed ofadfnite grain I epmeSentLand Tax Pa Hslen eally bination fourtaxes forced computed basis Central Governzent orders The Central Government depending needs Se figure which divid Provinces basis cultivable dthiS turnis dided among Hsien figure reaches Hsien percent basict The total basict Collected finally divided Helen Government p6rcent Provincial Governmsnt percent central Govern required percent Once total figure basic computed deteined total value already describd Cultivable which collected A second added ProVincial Go sEmen dividedong Hsien receipts thins Province The other taxes added I Government current other accuulate grain reserve asimsurance against years Of The forced Central Government Eery owner worth eflnite amount The Jhe Cntral GoVernment through varlous Land Tax Bureau early installments period nterest whiCh percnt The repayments money oniihe basis current prices epaymentj All these elements taxes forced lumped together collected atthe The Head Pa Hsien Land Tax Bureau these tsxes together amount between percent valueof production presemt That figure difficult check roughly correct The Land Tax probably important slmgle China because Central Prmvimca Hsien GOVern heavily The Central Government other iuportant sources imcome including Customs Salt Commodity Income Inheritance Taxes these taxes rural China least Pa Hsieu The Co rotundity_Tax Bureau representa major modern factories Hslezcan coIlecta certain amount large enough warrant establishment branCh office Hsien The Direct Tax Bureau offic Hsie capital receipts almost thing In although thealthier citizens Helen certainly covered Income Tax Head 0fthe Direct Tax Bureau somewhat sheepishly admits single person Income Tax They weren willing evidently couldn about In addition organizatlons already described there independent bodies connected Hsien Gowernraent The important mentioned prevously Health Office which maintains Branches Health Stations Hsie Withi limits abilities doing needed providing medical service It badly handi capped however funds personnel equipment modern medical service available fraction population Pa Hsien All ofthe Hslen bodies described administrative bodies their persoonel appointed 0What these postS They course Thee competent Inc0mptent They fairly educated college university graduates Bav profession civil service worked several Hsien Governments period Years There chance promotion above Hslen level according I talked With within Hsen Government Department Head small chalice becoming Magistrate Apparently becomes rofesslonal Department Head professional Magistrate shifted around between Departments transferred Hsien Hslen slight chance being promoted hiher Greater resposibility Alnbst these source outslde icoms because present salaries though percentage Hsien expenses armot really enough One thing these conuo All executivs officers Departuent Bureau Office Heads Without exception members Kuo mintan While membership Euonintaog importst Hsieh Ma Hslang appears prerequislte appointmebt Hsien position In respects membership Kuomintang seems nature union There types garry cards Some weight Hsien Government capable forWard looking doing their provide government Pa Hsin One distinguish between Partyorganization Party membership because membership inclusive contains kinds people The Prty itsel Pa Hsien owever isplred listless rootless orgazfzatio which appareotly nterested d0iog anything except monopoly position polities g0vernent service The Secretary Executive Cozmnittee Hslen Party Headquarters there Aea Party Headquarters Party Branches Pa Hsien total membership about This includes regular party mebers andTYouth Corps members Ihaving merged Party recsn These figures althouh agree exactly statistics published Hsien Government bablysubstantlally correct The figure total membership small however lation Hsleha Hslang typical those party cards inactive nominal members The Kuomlntan never competition other organized political Party region since flrst organized prior Revoltlo explain vitality degneratlon political organlzatlon whlch almost ollow program activities which nonetheless maintains monopoly higher political posts Theoretically there Hsien Party Represen tative Assembly elected every years which selects thirteen member Executive COmmittee which Party affairs Part Secretary appointed Provincial Party Headquarters membr Examination Connnittee which checks Executive Com mittee Actually however tBere evema nominal meeting assembly there meetl future The Party receives mandate instructions hierarchy above rather membership below Fnancial Kuomintang depended subsidies Government Party Government clearly separated raher Joined legally defined polltical matrimony during called period political tutelage This Wi beginnln Constitutional Government Yave div6rced This involve among other things Government subsidies Party It interesting however Pa Hsien Party Headquarters which located Hslen Government building still subsidized Hslen Treasury The amount subsidy large maintains official between Party Government The Party Secretary denies subsidy continues principal assistant Hslen Accountant frank revealing facts The subsidy discontinued future present remains example between promulgation inplementatlon China Fortunately character Part Pa Hsie dtermi character Hsien Government The Hsieo Government contains ounbr liberal Officials attempting prove conditlos cooperating program which being pushed whole Third Administrative District Szechuan which Pa Hsien belongs The elective representative Pa Hsien Hsien Council This Council which meets every three months unsalaried members Of elected Hsiang ssemblles various professional organization occupational group It concerns itself almost exclusively financial butymatters pesented Hsle Government Procedurally Shoroughly democratic Questions ferred Hsien Government debated openly sessions whlch notable rhetoric serious discussion Allo decisioos approved By Proviocial Government before become final Council power based share controllig purse strings The Hsie Government Councll budget expenditures The Council therefore oegative helps determine policy through financial matters Th complexity0f poblem chage progress China Is illustrated element democracy Hsien Government uqualifed blessi Pa Hsien The preset impmlse toward stimulus chaEe reform region oeither masses Who remai politically passive landowning gentle represented Hsien Council keygroUp Of idealistic Administrative District Office Hslen Government Education Move The Hsien Council tends obstacle rathe instrument chano The reasons should obvious already about social organization region As ranking member Hsien Government expressed There single tenant whole Council Council members allmen wealth education They conservative interested changing status The status their personal point which point An Administrative District Pa Hsien Units Hsie Special District Hsien Admiistratlve District Szechuan The whole Provlnce broken Districtof The Third Administrative District populatlo about millions In othsr words contains people S Denmark A Administrative District really nothing branch office ofthe Provincial Government Chinese provinces large necessary between Prbvinclal Hsien Governments The functlon Administrative District Offices supevlsethe Hsien Governments oders above carried A Chuan Yuan District Officer sometimes translated Inspector General Prefect conSlder authority however askth Provincial Govern remove Hsien agistates Deprtmet Heads Sees The Third Administrative District OTice located building adjacent Pa Hsien Governmsnt Its chief executive concent District Office Peace Preservation Commander District appoinhed Provincial Government Central Goverment flrmatio He civil Itay offclals There three Departments dellng Civil affairs conscription healh Second taxation flnauce adminlstatlon educatiOn reconstruction social affairs The J0b these Depatments close touch going espectlve fields Hsien Although resposiblllty Disrlct Offlc arily snRervlsory nomal clrcumstaces exert important influence whole Distet providing leadership making sugges tions agistrates The District Officer normally authority initiate policies ability imaginatioo force Introduce ideas Hsien agistrate agree mbtaiH approval policies Pro vloclal Govsnmt Rural Recbnstructlo Eeform The plcture Which I presented complete I deliberately omitted certain influences forces which beginning themselves theopatten economic tical I beause I wanted primarily describe noEnal typical aspects egion A descIp ofthese elements would require anothe report I mention briefly postcrlpt Perhaps I about later reports The whole Third Administrative District typical sense little designated Provincial Government experimen Mss Education Movement In policies ofural reconstruction reform being introduced tried Mass Education Mov opeation backing District Office The leadership experiment hands Dr Yen privately financed independent Mass Education Movement The other Mr Su Lien Distrlc Officer Third Admlnisative District appointed present By Provioclal Government Dr Yen Requsst Tese menhave worked togethe rural constrUction projeCts other parts China Bbth Of unusUal ability Imagination andvlslon believe pregesSand eform accomllshed peaceful Utlonary means In China tryinE prove putting theist theole practice The assEducatio Movement started inl19 various tlmes carried projects Hopeh Hunan Kwags Whe began simply literacy movement gadually developed program attaklng whole poblem development odlntBd polcies related literacy health imp0vement citzenship education eappr Of MaSs Educatio Movement stimulate selfImlrovement Of tecommon people organize adice What assist doing It Thestartig point attempt raise standard literacy Mss Education Directors traied Rural Rec6nstructlon Eeform The Which I presented complete I deliberately omitted certain influences orces which beginlng themselves pattern economic political I cause I wanted primarily describe normal typical aspects eglon A escIp ofthese elements would requie anothe report I mention briefly postcrlpt Perhaps I about later eports The whole Third Administrative District typical In sense little designated Provincial Government Imental Mss Education ovemnt In policies uralreconstruction eform being itroduced tried Education ovement operation backing District Office leadership eerlment hands One Dr esYen privately fInanced independent Education Mement eother Mr Su Li Distrlc Officer Tid AIn lstative DistrIct appointed present By Provioclal Government Dr Yen RequeSt Tsetwo menhavewoked togeths rural constrUctloprojects other parts China Bbth usual ability Imagination dvlslon believe preges andefo accollshed peaceful evlutlonary In China trying puttlng their theories practice assEducation ovementwas startednl varioustlmes carried projects Hopeh Hunan Kwangsl Whe began simply literacy m0ement gadually developed aprogr attaki whole problem development odlnted poliies related teracy health cultual improvement citzezship education eapproach Of theas Educatlo ovement designed stimulate desir selfLimovement Of common people organize What assist doing It tarting point attempt raise standard ollteray Mass Educati Directors trained In cases cooperatives organize local handicrafts rational basis attempt standardize production eeded materials finished products cooperativ The ultimate objective cooperatives throughout whole region perhaps Pao which include working farmers reglo Each cooperative integrated working specialists EduCatio 1VIovement welfare mprovemen members actual involved carrying progra rembers Education Movement develop qualified leaders College Rural Recon structioo established The Govern gives mbvemt support backing however For example Hsiang Offices iostructed designate teacher school Educa Director these teachers Education ovemezt trains first program The Government backs cooperatives their efforts loans Also Distriot Office solidly behind cooperatives btjing offered aspect program definitely Governmeot support carled extensively because there opposition laded interests The District 0fTice trying dsvelopment irrigation projects region This program going InIts present experimental In regions slgniflcat progress In others Hsleh Hsiang where College Rural RecoostruC located incidentally llteracy classes coopeatlves start haveoyet altered signifi cantly traditional pattern econo social political However program promises progress toward meeting fundamental needs farmers region As develops ioevltbly political implications I farmers aroused aware means which improve positioo organized learn potentlali collective action active interest government politics For peacefully bring about importaot changes however probably requires acquiescence active assistance Government authorities Fortunately exists present local It would litate uatters however received support Central Goveroment Particularly regard orgaoizatlonal features local government there certain changes which Ceotral Governeot adinistration centralized China I attept offer opinion changes should perhaps suggested facts I already described Received New York