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6/15/1948 - Sikang Province - China-Tibet Border by A. Doak Barnett

INSTITUTE OF CURRENT WORLD AFFAIRS ADB U S Consulate C China July Walter S Rogers Institute Current Worl Affairs Fifth Avenue New York N Y Dear Rogers On Ju I riding small horse through overlooking ibetan grasslands Wst owerinSnowNounains oheSoutheast Iwassnowing andhe which hrough hepass naked khaki clohes Only heavy raincoa cpleel saable andiwas climax exciing On June Phil Valdes Yale classmate friend American Vice C onsul Chungking I Chungking common objective learn province Sikan earrived Chungking July after having covered miles about miles about mile_s horseback hunkin drove Chen capital S echwan breakin drive which divided Yaan another The rough roads literally chewed tires these stretches limped destination three From Yaan miles through spectacular mountain country I About sedan chairs herest including hesteeppar wewalked FromKangwe horses small Tibetan village Nashi situated valley rolling betan grasslands The whole excitin The scenery Sikang presents spectacle which hrillin every Ii Ie difleren Our appointment clouds prevented catching fleeling glimpse Konka highest mountain Saw other covered peaks which impressive The whole reiom passed through romantic frontier robbers atmos phere The Provincial Government insisted giving sizeable armed escort varying platoons strange reason bandit trouble ourselves missed Beyond Kaing ibetan guide advisable To Chinese borrowem rifles Wen pockets ammunition Again avoided rouble tense moment approached patrol neither ourselves identity All along stayed small Chinese except beyond Kan spent night Tibetan another ibean whatever could In Chinese areas wereoccasionallyableo getgoodGhinesemeals btamanysops potatoes local bread suffice borrow na1red anything In areas travelers carry their provisions flour brough along In entertained rankin officials pleasan scoundrels alked numerable people We fortunate meein6 number informed people includin foreign missionaries Catholic Protestant background briefing particularly Tibetan reions province In report I together thesand pieces information gathered durin reading translation documents gathered ikang eneral picture region ealso interesting inhen famous wells Tseliuchin I confine thisrepo tokanProvince You probabe menion civil winereport gisrallyuched thefighngin othpofCdis absorbed bypblofis Wle weweinhpnceas ofsols wassNorth wihspeh dflag wangusual forCa allegedCosts arrestedon thesisofioronreveed byacoessiondebya inCnn tthofheseevts wevyua dlarge hecilwis evenfartheraway fmkinapsyclocalsse itsgapally gapclyiis alongwayoff I leave first avlab plane Nanking I Sinkin Province Nankin6 viaow accorng eplan I outlined previous letter ymail frwarded fromNing I acquire forwarding address I write ether distan Sincerely yours A Doak Barnett The borderland between China remote little known region conrini highest mountains rugged terrain world I region cultural conflict fusion numerous peoples intermixed heterogeneous population It frontier where boundaries vance I where political auriy confused political onrol shifts changing balance military power between local groups leaders Some areas borderland inaccessible uninhabited Other areas where bandits their headquarters between raids communication lines regions Many areas domain independent tribes recognize authority independent tribesw receive minimum outside The important boundary reion course which divides China Tibet This Which diffi define however The majorityo modern Chinese color China wishful thinking Chinese cartographers Outer Tibet Tibet Proper under Chinese control previous recognition Chinese soerelgn originally annual longer exists Parenthetical modern foreign relations affecting Tibet Chinese influen Tibet lined steadily since Lhasa Convention concluded England Col F Youngasband Even before Chinese Ambans Tibe become virtually powerless The convention little defersnce Chinese claims sovereignty It established precedn direc tiations between England TiBet forth English claims special interests country In article vention TiBet engaged allow foreign power intervene affairs provision which radually include China Since English policy oward TiBet which corollary England position India concern Indian security parti cularly Russia based desire either maintain stats Tbe possible allow competitors ahead England In England China sined ambiguous convention Peking which confirmed validity Lhasa Convention contained implicit English recognition Chinese sovereignty Tibet An Anglo Russian convention confirmed Lhasa Convention contained reference recognition China zerainty In however period active English intervention began after flight Dalai Lama India result Chinese roops being Tibet punitive expedition because Dalai Lama disobedience England roops Tibet In Chinese arrison Lhasa rewlted looted Dalai Lama returned exile England power Tibe firmly established while Sino Tibetan relations ruptured In conference Simla Under England umpireship asked recognize complete autonomy Ou Tibeo China unwilling concession aEngland herafer reated China intens purposes forain power coming under article conenion regard Tibe Tibe Proper In special commissiem Lhasa uauuraion Of present Dalai Lama hereater Lhasa office subsequently known Tibe Ofioe Cemmissien Affairs TI reestablished betweenChinaand Tibe wasoun eredbyhe establis I efaBri shlgission under gheSim Political 0ficer hecIndian Civil Service Tibe English luencein betrnsprei 1theg lishwithdral India bring change England Tibetan olicy reated Nnglmd cncern India The boundary between Tibe Proper China southwestern provinces Sikang Chinghai drawn conventional significance It arbitrary whioh acaal relationships existing borderland Sikang Chinghai relatively provinces which twenty years carvedou oheregionknownas Inner Tibe western boundaries merely indication Chinese alaims little The vision between Tibe China across provinces Sikang uhinghai In reali Sine Tibetan boundaries running through oneis defininghe extentohinesese lemen herefore ethnic economic boundary defining limits Chinese authority military control herefore polimal boundary The province Sikang reean political creation formed amalgamation areas formerly Tibe Schwan Province The Szechwan Province seion originally known Chwan Pien Szechwan Brder Region The which ultimately creation separate province onwasakenafewyearsbeforethe endofheanDynasty In Kuang Hsu appointed ranking oficmr oovern border region covering parts Szechan Yunnan In durin thewihf dynasty proposed provi Sikan established action before ollapse dynasty In after founding Republic China anofficialnamedYinwasappointedo ruleheareachas ruled under anchus Aer Yin succession other pecial governors administer border region Thenn Ganeral Liu Wen appointed Commander Chief Szechwan Sikang Frontier Defense Force This beginning Sikang provincial regime whichi establishment province sometimes erroneously though oiciallorganized province until years formation Sikang province factors One accelerated Cnese migration agriu11ral commermial penetration ringes region This going about yearsa process speeded ThiS desire sabilize regularize administration Cna Somewha amorphous border regions factor Another factor least partially responsible esablisen Sikang chaoic political affairs Smechwan Province On Chinese Chinese Sikang respects political appendage Szechwan reperomssionsoflocalconflicts andsrugglesinShwanaeap factor determining polical alton adjacau border reiono General Liu major warlords Szechwan during period major bales fough between local factions province For brief period private Army achieved prodominance until Governor Szehwan In latter however ousted Szechwan after liary defsa hands powerful nephewuHsian defea Liu moved westward Sikang became Center power In commission S established Central Governmen Kang The appoinen Liu Wen commission simar poinens regions remote centers power Central Govarnmen realistic recotonof facto local regime Finally Central G0vemen ferll announced creation Sikang rederoa boundary betweenSechwanandSikanggivingthelattero larges2ics around important Yaan Sichang which originally belonged Szechwan Liu Wen political rereat ID Sikang which place period prior finally resulted regime which remains purely personal regime Sing second choice ID Szechwan Liu fifoanh population fraction arable known resources Szechwan native military eclipse first Liu Hsiang later Central Governmen which tended effecv control westward When Liu moved Sikang accompanied personal horde ralaives usual hangers congregate satellites sycophants around powerful local leadro These people control region today nammo General Liuo A present there really three capitals S render Lira control Liu himself Governor Sikang icalion Commander Sikang Cmmander Division former Army maintains headquarters gnificent mansion Chengl capital mechwan He given aspirations regaining power bailiwick consequently spends little provincial capital Earing Taienlu He prefers remote control hrougD rusted deputies through telegraphic instructions Chengu mansion Al though pleasant maeed ruleswit legraph lines Sikang vibra instructions obedien vibrations place other Wi Sikang itself Liu capitals One official provincial capital Ka where organs civil government located Liu chief deputy named Chang W ching cting Governor Provincial Coissioner Civil Affairs Chang commanded brigade Army Acting Governor since official creation province carried routine administration Even though originally military respected leaders fairly reputation among local pogle which somewhat surprising character regime whole The civil government render Chang organized along conventional lines accerding national regulations includes Comssions Civil Affairs Fimanc Edmcaion Reconstruction Bureaux Social Affairs Accounting S atisics Personnel Secretariat organizations Police Security Forces Offices ASlcultural Development Geological Surey various other organizations Also province divided hsien hsiang China Routine relations intercommunications maintained Central Governmen This however obscure reality independent regime subject little Central Governmen The facade normal relations often veils reality chasm political rivalry China This presen regard ID relations between Liu Wen Central Government There struggle between Cem Government disapproves Liu because handed exercise local auonomyo The relations between province Central Government clearly revealed personnel provincial regime forms organiza Zne superficial existing between Kar4ing Nanking In Eaing administration administrative isions province including hsien political friend Liu Zne loyalty relative crony these personal loyalty Liu Wen Liu Wen other capital Sikang Yaan close Ssecman border Liu three deput Yman hsuan Aeting Commanaer vision nephew Lira Wen Yang Chia Cief Staff vsion Wan Chin ssistant acification Commander All these loyal subordinates years In reCpects Yaan important cenero Liu control Sikang capital Kangting local primarily military Yaan cntar Liu power milisry surpriingo Thereion afntierdhas haracer istics frontier There issiden minorities aboriginal tribes outlaws andis An analogy early western U S wemld fetched There running opium radimg innumerable forms illicit activity lawlessness The authorities participate these activities which exist maintained milllry uniis The Liu Wen military power Division Formerly organization called Army Liu personal A years integrated National Army converted division still 9rganization still personal force Theoreticall reduction taken place change division doubtful reduction place probably large powerful The Division Liu other military nizations probably organization family friends civil ernment Liu Wen Co Ae aision nephew Liu Yman hsuan Acting Commander According military authoriies Yaan division brigades three regiments independent regiment The 137th Brigade headquarters Yaan commanded Liu Yuan tsung another nephew Liu Wen The 136th Brigade headqusters Sichan commanded Wu P married Liu Nen daughters The independen reglmen located called which I define later commanded Fu Teh relative Liu court Asinthecaseofhecivil goverment othersubordinatepositions importance filled other relatives friends particularly Liu W native hsien Szechwan There estimated officers mostly inistry National efense things basic control division The Division troops which commanded various members Liu family mainly zechwanese leavening native Sikang people Officially claimed there roughly O00 division number considerably hiher They armed formidable fighting force In striking contrast roops China Division soldiers armed least action rifles carry belts amanition They relatively disciplined clean uniforms Liu military supplies plentiful because financial resources I mention later purchase According responsible officer Division every squad sixeen foureen rifles automatic weapom I confirmed everyDmmhas mortars every brigade special artillery includes mortars division battalion artillery saloned Szechwan place between Yaan Chengt which cresting The Division srong fighting force stationed mainly principal cities Most concentrated Yaan Sichang Military duties througu province shared other military organiations which somewhat different The Pacification Troops Security Troops Provincial Police City efense Comand Kanging directly mnder Provincial Government Self defense Corps units Hsien P9lic under hsien governments units sonal Liu Wen They supplied small Their total strength difficult ermine aggregate contain number which approaches ruops Division The importan these secondary forces Pacification Troo major responsibility rooing bandits protecting lines communications transport units Pacification Troops located towns villages along roads areas throughout region Iu control importan political commnications Yaan Kanging escor persons imporance In higher chain military command China LiB Wen military forces sbordinae I Secan Sikang Yunnan Kwecow command GeneralCHsiao liang Cngking C headquarters ormerly President Cngking Head quarl recently given different title mebers oreign relations ranslae Pac ficatin Commandt Clnes I already erred Pacification Command relations between Liu corlial In southern minimal Sikang Province unique peculiar situation balance power maintained The Garrisen Cender there General Iao Kuo kuang Central Governmen directly General CIr He approximately equal Liu subordinates inharea The resul Lu Io check balmce final authoritY Southern Siang center Siclng herefere special region under Central Governmen Provinc millary contrl Furthermore commnications Sichng Seuth Yaan Kang North natural orientation Sichang region intercourse oward areas zechwan directly Sicnan Liu Wen military civilian representatives heory uvern ikang Province appears conventional political boundary Sikang atached Actually however although their power complete areas effectively unsex their conrol limited eoraphical sense Although military power therefore ulimate authority divided region around Sichang pointed already civil administration region controlled Liu Wen The secure unquestioned areas control however regions immediately around Yaan Kangting areas All regions areas Chinese colonization which assimilated China culturally plitically They narrow fringe eastern province eastern frine however Chinese population Cinese control confined towns communication routes The towns compressed valleys almost smothered surroundhng mountains theroues creep along cliffs bottom gorges lo0kupogeaglimpseothesky SomeChinesefarmers woodcutters prospectors spreac mounins settled regions minority mountains region which contains western Konka about highest mountain China habited Chinese groups their lanages customs economic social forms organ izaio andmoo these groups ruled By ribal chiafS In areas Chinese settlements aborigines usually compelled submit degree control supervision They reluctantly however ribes hared Chinese which periodically flares conflict Beyond eastern fringe where Chinese tribal groups intermixed expanse plateau world The Chinese Sikang which constantly refer thase Tlbeta areas The translate The means outside beyond The means custom Outside customs barrier might translation which literally correct fails convoy significance It customs levies goods coming china Tibe collected inside Kangting Chinese somet broader outside customs barrier beyond border Aibetan _bp_u_ country neYand N W 1oSaAOpA appears places which Acally undary boundary aehed traced Acting Governor Ch indicating rough geographical deconomic boundary dividing China Tibet Sikang region Wes population Tibe Important center Kantse Paan Dege contain sizeabl groups Cnese Chinese officials garrison roops Chinese movetoughhe countryside bulkotepopulation Also generally follows beginning besslands The terrain these grasslands cxpansive The which valleys O00 rounded 000fee higher would called mountains anywher contrast sharply mountains Eas Instead being precipitous rgged forested rolling treeless covered smooth surfac short grass looks newly breathtakin prosion flowers In region Tibetan economy prevails Ys hillsides barley grows No would rpresented politica undary EaSt Chinese administration vailed WeS special border anistrations At prssen wever forms Chinese administration extend fgret Yangtze River which Sikang lehCnS orldSandRiver Theheadwatersofhe Bra Sween Yangtze course through Sikang constricted mountains rising oward their respective outlets which thousands miles apart Chinese administration naturally undergone modifications however Tibetan siaion For example Tibetan hsiang which often composed primarily groups roving nomadic herdsmen different Chinese hsiang settled agriculturalists In cases political organization lower levels region reins pretty Tibetan forms called Chinese ibean economic social organization mixture agriculural pastoral elements A large population nomadi raises wesern catle mixture These nomads organiz definite grouPs grass lands ivided areas within which group moves place place There permanent settlements however The important these lamaseries there widcly separated farming villages contrary common misconception farming Tibet The staple Tibetan tsamba unaspiring flour ground baked barley Yak cheese provide cothing using tents transport dried infinitum barley items barley Iplus fewother relatively unimportant grains grown valleys grass latakia esefangllagesdoherperen settlements areusulynongre afewflaofesneildings gupedgeher widear arehcers ofhepolii anistraion orized Cnese In adnisrati every hsiensraeis aCnese appointed thePvincialvernm lligcsdether lecal Ieaders below Ieel arebelead scsenbyhrooups Ateachiencity andinchig herei aslgsonforceof Oneseeps earetepssentin theareabyheCnese auriti dveno connectionwihhe lecal beself denseuwchecomposedounedmiliawpeocally patrol asslds located eCnese civil adstraion therore localverofthereon theCnselitaryforcesare obsie lives Fruen friction ccasienallyoptuble resultsbeeheCnesetroopsandthe localpple onerecurringcsebngCneseliryrequision fooddoher supplieswiutfrcompenSaon The political situation between limits Yangtze River herefore which Chinese civil admini stration rahar loose character dispersed Cnese rrison force superimposed predominantly Tibetan populaion Chinese authority stops completely Yangtze River however Paanand Doge outposts Chinese control Beyond river boundary attached which forms North Souh bisecTng Sikang almoS exactly equal Chinese control virtually Chinese influence Beyond Yangtze River country Tibetan every respect Tibetans freely crosshis westward Chinese foreigners cannoo The Chinese regularly allowed ID cross 1raders esablished connections Lhasa Tibetan centers It estimated present there about hundred Chinese privileged position Jus Yangtze importan Tibetan rading cener Chamdo Changu Chinese where Tibetan customs duties imposed collected imports brought China shortest asiest route Politically whole region river entirely Tibetan which lamasaries local princes envoys Lhasa inporan roleo All various reions which lumped ogether province Sikang contain population which Provincis1 Governme Kanging esimaes Of total vague estimate population areas classified Hsien Political Guidance Areas Special Ad ministrative Areas divided among Hsien Special Administrative Areas Political Guidance Areas later entirely Lolo regions around Sichang One oicial saisics defines areas population Ya round Yaan Ning around Sichang KanE around Kangtlng Yangtze River H9 Hsi Yangtze The population figures areas gives distribution hroughou province million Sichan slihlinder amillion Yaan reion under quarter millioninhelargeKangregionsrechingoheYanze andnl slightly quarter ilion hinge halfotheprovince westofheYangtze Saisicsforheeam reions Ho Hsi K obviously uesses however proportion unidentified people probablyin thosereons bthesatistics nonethelesslwea general indication population density reaes small valleys eastern fring province population spread hinly Tibetan rasslands The total population figure three mili0ns probal approximatelycorrect foria6Eeesroughlywihunofficialesimae This population spread tremendous territory which prgvlncial sisics square kilometers which mapped surveyed Sikang therefore China populated reions The racial classification population province 6iven provincial stalistics ineresin dication heterogeneity population although figures hemselves incomplete entirely reliable A July estimate states there I01 Ham Chinese people province The remainder classified population broken fifteen racial actually culzal including ibeans Bla Os Whie Lolos ChiaJun6 ohammedan various other peoples The saisics complete however unofficial estimates obtain general picture racial position population Actually groups which numerically important Han Chinese Tibetans Lolos ohers small minorities Fairly reliable estimates three roups slightly million Han Chinese concentrated Sichan Y Kanging regions slightly million Ilos concentrated emountain reions around Sichang slightly under million Tibetans spreadoutwestofKangin Somepeopleclaimhahe Tibetan population Sikang lthough either Chinese Ti reater Tibe population Proper where people dispersed excep areas around Lhasao I population figures Tibet which considerably llion however country probably guesses The general attitude Chinese population Sikang owmrd racial groups paronizing condescending The Chinese refers other people indescrim2ael people which derogatory ermSo Een II Lolo derogatory C hinese resented tribesmen To applied The official ai1de Governmen Chinese groups should civilized official policy assimilation emphasis education The Chineso doubt superiority Chinese believe little Chinese education roups solve ofheproblemssinou eneeof racial cullmral minority groups In wenty years educated People forget names minority groups Assistant Pacif cation Commander province enthusiasm There Indicaiom enthusiasm justiiled however minorities reSea Chinese intrusion lives desire Siniciedo Theywan autonomy which Chinese unwillin6ID TheAmerican educatedrovincialaSnerofEmca0m inSikanadmitshaheofficial policyencounersalmosnsup obstacles In ibeans example passive resistance overnment education policy All Scol classes areas elsewhere conducted Chinese There Chinese educated eachersa teachers mixed Chinese Tibetan blood majority teachers Chinese Al hough Obese Chinese teachers speak Tibe ibe1an language classroom Tibe schooled oreign language The native Tibetan schools seminaries lm_sries According Tibetans hemselves however their rosin objection langaage acually simple forced children school They formal education useless waste conceivable As result Tibe attitude oward education analagous Tibetan pointed I atitude Chinese hemselves toward conscripi0m ducation looked onerous Oliaion avoided possible The practice payin substitutes school place children prevalen reporZed TibeZan children school periods Educational insZiuions Sikang In clude about primary schoolq middle schools normal college aKangting technical college Sichang The Commissioner Education insZiuions above primary level locatedws Kangting Sha normal middle school Although education issue actions Chinese garrison forces problems creae frequen friction between Chinese racial groups relations enirel hostile By means In Kanging Chinese Tibetans along there dealof intermarriage while Sichang region intermarriage between Chinese Lolos areas groups Chinese Sinicized rhermore Liu Wen policy definitely gettingalongwih Tibaans Lolos Outside ofsown group ofollowersusveryewfriendsorallies andheedently keeponasoderaspossiblewihhejorgupsin sownpnce InJuneofsye forexple Liuhda souscoceinChengwih group oftio ribal atwch aptwde scuss solveou snngcupbl VddIwefornatein being siinonstrelyinteresngcoce OnlyLiu thelos fourothCnese dourselv swepren pceengsd translatmCneinto thelolage anvicavsa rsudea speechpsizingthefollong heshouldbecloserelaonsbetwetheH Cnesedhelos elossuldevenanucaion Cne Sikang shoul equal hePncivemtwould itspse solve allstes bypeacmesrathnrorng Io alish cessive axaonofeloswouldbelowed TheIocs wihthor cololnnedrbans andoaeivd pisIs listened rpecul silce cluing speech Th chseinrndde astentagrengwihchofwe vordsd TheyweresurprisinglyfraY wever cricis In paricul comp1ned attion wasbngv hrstandardofling dtheyacusby nametwom oneaCnesegdheoher acnrib wmeyconsid beopprsived Despieu saideweviremns afacdaytthe PncialveeninKnconnsonlyadoenor meofhinrponsiblepositions andevenfew InCcisinCnesepolicieswdnoi Amic forget reatmen dtheAmicIn Economically Sikang generally backward undeveloped Despie however iderable amoun trade whichoeson andinhisrespec Sikangisthemaingaewmybe China This spectacular business moves slowly mountain passes through gorges almos alloi carried backs animsls The maincommercialcenerofnpronce Yaau acityofabou ThisisaveryroughestimatesinceIwasunableo oBsin satistics population Yaau which close Secan border place where important trading establishments maintain duarers bustlin6 Chinese The evidence Liu Wen personality omnipresent Yaan There Liu Street Liu Suspension reconstruction Br deoer Ya Rier memorisl Liu column erected Liu fiftieth birthday The colorful rading however Kanging I meeln place Chinese Tibetan raders similar position Kalimpong Indian other sideo Tie Chinese goods rough mountains Yaan Kanging ibeans Chinese transportation By human carriers lesser exten paeksmimals horses ponies onkeys mules areused andfromYaanoianglukou abouthal Kanging animsl carts employed Mos exchanges bellmen raders Chinese Kanging barter Basis Tibetan caravanseries Kugting Chinese goods caravan ibetan grasslnds miles westward Kangting beautiful lighul amazing Iis mountains torrent stream rushes hrough cener Its archiec1re aracive mixture ibean Chinese elements population Abou hirly Tib majority group sixth popula Governmen employees larges group population people employed commerce The emperaure Kanging pleasantly middle summer altitude Al thoughi takes walkingoreachKangingfromYaan oneisalmostflabbergastedupon reaching discover electric lights KW hydroelectric belonging private company organized Liu athwihmoionpictures andshopsfullofgadgets modern appliances goods imported Eas Weso Transportation whole province Sikang primitive The automotive transp0r which Chen Sechwan Yaan The navigable river Ya River bamboo rafts downstream Yaan Eiaing SechwanandaretowedupstreamfromEiaingo Yaanoosothe rivers province broken innumerable rapids potentially useil hydroelectric developmen ranspor Besides Yaan Chenga mosofiinSzechwan hereare several oherroads allofwhich during period Sino Japanese Nar These include Yaan Kanging Kanging Yuch Chinghai Sichang Kiaing Yaan Yunking Sichang Yunnan ainenance roads impossible however A presen sections which 9ccasionall passable small molar vehicles jeeps Yaan Lianglukou section Yaan Kanging between Sichang Fulin these sections impassable vehicles muchohemedue1 landslides andwased bridges Trade through province ollows several roueSo A local carried between South Sikang Smechwan route Sichang Kiaing A amoun between Siclmng andYaanandEangtingviaLuting Byfarthlargestpareherade Tibean which hrugh ikang channledhroughYaanadE WesoKangingwemain routes caravans One Chinghai TiBet The sraigh across ikang TiBeo Boh romes areexCremelyimportanandheavilymse ThecircuitousrouCevia Chinghai Che easiero Che becausei crosses fewer mountain ranges There trade directly between Tibe Chinghai which misses Sikng entirely Che rouea presen Tibe China hrough Kanging hough former Chinghai Tibetan Paking through Kanging secondary route In addition rickle directly between India Sikang In regard comAnicaions province national provincial elegraph lines serving major eastern Yaan Sic Kangimg riangle There provincial saons Kanng Yaan Sichang Paan Kanse Yuehsui Lihna Hannah Tanpa official imerconicaion There government operated provincial broadcas saions Mangling Provincial elephones reach connec Yaan Hanyuan Luing Kanging andYungking nationallinesconnecwihYaanandE andSichang telephone service There several airfields Sikang Sichang Field Yaan Field Yingansai Kanging which during Kanse Field Lihma Field which never completed All excep Sichng Field unused disrepair however outside consists periodic commercial flights between Sichang Chungking The between China Tibe foundation between countries Tea indispensableparofheibeandie andallofimusbeimported Some brough country India Ohinese provinceo Yunnan large share comes throughKangin supply grown mountains Yaan region carried narrow baskets weighing approximately seventeen pounds human hireen baskets Kangting Therei repacked containers holds baskets ransported This makesupthelargestparofChina sexporso Tibe bohinvolume value Formerly there expor levied exPort sopped A percen still levied other expors imports however according local Chinese authorities Although Chines discarded emporarily Tibetan authorities Chamdo reported lejing heavy import duties brough I difficult almost being impossible accurate figures volume trade I unable saistics either volume value Commodity mater TheProvincialGovernmensayshaid esnothaveanysuch statistics I given unofficial estimate however_hat duringhepasyearea expors amountedoaboumndredhousand figure I figure packages years explanaion Zhe recenZ inCreasinEsZofproaion s_ndShedeulningqualZyofhe roSikang whiCh Tibes switch alernaive sources supply India Ymnnan comin hinese surces Eoing Emging clude Kanging almos entirely ependen imports4 andzanyacred0odfromCngkin hanEhat andelsewhere these beyond Kanging In ibetans ivesified specialeSo InYalueheostiporantf theseis ahighradeof orein ounries amacare perue Tibe producin curieS world The portance tbean exports ediinal supplies herbs plant Froducts which specialized purposes sucha These includefriillary radix angelica sylesris safflower aonic conariu others ports importance inclu sheep woolen cloth tltencarpets Tibetanhandicrafts adsomeoldan silver In adiion raher fanasic tradein British anufacred carried Tibens carry riish eigarees khaki cloth across India Kanging A amoun directly InCa Rriish cigaree cheaper Kanging London Apar prices goods however general priceleveludcoso livinginKanginandoher areas within inerior province extremely The average price Kanging example times Oheng whichis alileover High costs livinge responsibleforagooddea ofhardshipaonghecoonpeple considerable poverty I begars inYaan I think place China recent As ikang Province prices distance agoodshveobecarried Thehicostomanransporis reson ocourse T iteoneexample itesentowelvedaysfor carriersokealoadofearoYaanoKanin andheprice doubled ransporaion coSSo TheosvluableieofradebeweuSikuProvince Tibetans however resofChin doesno comefromTibeorfa I comes mainly Chinese ribal areas province opium I anopensecre thatopiuais theosiporant producndhemosiporexporofSikngProvince I anopensecrehaheopiumrade monopolyofhe2hDivision provincial authorities eohers secret Society I aCallyisonecessaryo drawadistinctionbetweenhesecre socitdhcivilandiliaryauthorities becauseheyare uully ideuicl Liu dpuies remendous profitsfromheopiumrade andopiumis financial suppor IAu regime The compleel poppyi deepinheunains ro_mthe roads haone doesn casual traveleralong lines communication opium bough anywhere along roads asmalli The Lolos other tribe producei quaniies althoughheyrarelyconsumeihenme andrade minly small I grown considerable quaniies hinese armers mounins Some Chinese farmers forced poppies ucnce voluntarily being resul profits arereaped Liu Cnese armmr producers themselves L Extensive poppy rowing incidenlly makes Sikang deici baniwodbeifallthearmersgrew oodcrops Collectionof opium responsibilityo designated agents Liu roops paricu Ivision A private opera muscle aonlyaearisk forheyincurhewrathofhe hrities Once collec opium channeled hrough Yaan Cheng1 Chinese world narcofc smugglers A presen Sikang together neighboring areas Alhmo_s opium exported consumed within provinee A several years mepresenaives enral GOvernmen considerable success ducing opium smoking recen years hasincreased again ughiis lesshaniwasmanyyearsago Aoreigndoctor Yaan esimat pmrcen population smokes toner asked fifty percen first arrived hecimanysears andaahlicpriesinKangingestimates percentage population Members certain occupational groups chair carriers almost hnndred percen adiced upeoplea levels inoludin wealthy merchants Officials consume Much banditry lawlessness Sikang raced rectly indirectly opium Confused violen civil strife oltan breaks opium growing districts after harvest iisenqlybierinheChiaJungregion northoKangting which includes Sikang Szechan banditry reaches during periods opium being ranspored productionareasoimporanradingcenersinan doutothe vince The prevalenceo lawlessness makes firearms almost necessity abiding citizens Sikang armed regions world whethernese ibean orolo whichdoesnot sessanfle outsideof I in_eres ncaena thasoheserifles eveninheTibetanhomes arezne Liu troops Thousands these autionls rifles brough province military authorities every medium exchange carried authorities The potentialities forfue Zconomlc dvelopmen Sikang Province dlflcul estimate because reliable information about province resources stall scaree One thing certain presents axising political regime province liability people obstacle development The province today llemore private domain nliary urees ofincom bYoneofhemosooriousmenin China aeven asumingathe province class political adminisrai difficul opuses couldeplace The ruled terrain makes exensive aicullral develepaen Psible A present riceiswninpahesinthevalleys around aaand Sichan other areas eastern pVtnce mountains beans minor crops produced quantities fautasic farms scratched sides m0unains On slopes which often eepas sixyor seYeny derees believe I Onbae however heseareasareoheavilydeicieninfoodproduction andnd further developmen farming almos existan In heasslandshe barley comes closero meetingheneedsohe people although production probably could increased achieve complete suffiienc there prospec develop beyond people imearby areas barley great There somewhat beter prospects evena development animal industries grasslands province At preent ibens tarely their animal production producl commereially small quaniieSo The Ttbrasslands finest paslae razin areas animal producs probably could increased considerably Were mveloped autmal industry commercialized presen manufaclring industry excep little aicug Tibetan handicrafts Dee tmmediae prospects development Future possibilities mpleely lacking example processing industres leather dairy pr0duct be1up expanded commercialized animal tndusryo hydroelecric power readily harnessing would facilitate devalop industries Phapm matin unploited nalral wealth province owever foress minerals Great sands mounmins province The provincial ecensrmci0n eslmaes tkree reioe alone Yangtze River region Yalung reion Tiencan Pmohsien reion neral resources bmanypeoplebelieeyaregreat Theommission Reconstruction known reserves 531000 copper I deposits considerab unknown quantiies silver antimony asbests andmica Ofhelaeriisknowntha asbesosare paricuiarly important Very province horoughly prospected urhermore resources reaer believed A present almoS known resourees efficiently oiled Ininiessimal amounts silver copper produced Whether sizeable mining industry developed dependsno energetic exploia1enbon orough eoloical surveys vince And prerequisitereconomicdevelopmenof anykinisheconsruciom Cases repair needed roads along roues province At presen however Sikang remains whati undeveloped confused romanic fronier place beaten which geographicai psychologically remote China