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12/1/1990 - Afghanistan at the Crossroads” Internal Dimensions ofWar and Peace. by Carol V. Rose

NOT FOR PUBLICATION WITHOUTWRITER SCONSENT CVR Bath Street INSTITUTEOFCURRENTWORLDAFFAIRS Oxford OX4 England December Fort Ali MusJid Khyber Pass AFGHANISTAN AT THE CROSSROADS Internal Dimensions War Peace Carol Rose Afghanistan described roundabout I ancient world Its culture springs ancient Persia India China Greece Arabia while borders reflect Century rivalry between colonial Britain Czarist Russia The decade Afghanistan again transformed battleground world politics sparked Soviet occupation country Yet nearly years after Soviets troop withdrawal Afghanistan fighting continues The communist government Najib collapsed predicted U S backed Mujahedin deeply divided among themselves Meantime million Afghan refugees remain stranded Pakistan Iran elsewhere waiting Carol Rose ICWA fellow writing cultures ofSouth Central Asia visiting fellow Oxford University Refugee Studies Programme Since theInstituteofCurrentWorldAffairs theCrane RogersFoundation hasprovidedlong termfellowships enable outstandingyoungadultstoliveoutsidetheUnitedStatesandwriteaboutinternationalareasandissues Endowed bythelateCharlesR Crane theInstituteisalsosupportedbycontributionsfromlike mindedindividualsand foundations CVR The failure achieve settlement after years negotiations suggests Afghanistan complex viewed through simple prism East West rivalry Peace possibl policy makers account domestic regional forces WAR WITHOUT END Ten years Afghani St wrought inconceivable destruction More million people their lives third Afghanistan population forced exile roads canals destroyed hundreds village flattened stretches farmland littered Soviet mines Although Soviet Union longer troops Xn country Moscow continues egkttk Zz estimated millionzuuotzetyotK month economic Afghanistan Likewise United States allocated million Saudi Arabia million supply Mujahedin during period November through May The United Nations raised additional billion refugees Afghanistan promises economic assistance But after years project limited success Despite massive financial support U S Soviet negotiations Afghanistan stalled Other issues dominate superpower_ agenda Persian Gulf crisis opening ofEastern Europe unification Germany continuing domestic economic problems United states Soviet Union Arguably these events product Afghanistan Just Britain colonial empire foundered peaks Hindu Kush earlier century Soviet occupation Afghanistan Moscow militarily spiritually Indeed theAfghan factor Soviet Union evaluation military force foreign policy Were Central Europe would history today Ashraf Ghani Afghan associate professor anthropology The Johns Hopkins university world community beggars Ghani What Kuwaitis Saudis world We Afghans greatest military machine world defeated In short demand b1ood price Whether superpowers Will price remains But while their attention focused elsewhere internal forces historically shaped Afghanistan resurfacing Some argue emergence religious tribal traditions nation faster externally imposed solution The danger instea further fragmentation Beirut ization Afghanistan In ntrast European model nation state Afghanistan traditionally tribal state which loyalty tribe family takes precedence loyalty nation Indeed popular resistance Afghan government directed against state itself against communism The history Afglhanistan revol against central power resistance penetration countryside state bureaucracy writes Oliver Roy noted historian Afghanistan To oppose state society always somewhat artificial Yet Afghanistan separation rooted MAP II MAJOR ETHNIC GROUPS IN AFGHANISTAN TURKOMAN FARSIWAN AREA tRIBAL G OTHER TRIi E ETHNIC GROUPS MAJOR SOURCES SOV TSKAYA ETNOGRAF IyA ETN CESKU CVR everyday experience It isapparent rural villages where administrative buildings apart people dwellings It clothes general behavior individuals performing their roles society For peasant state alien relationship between peasantry state official characterized profound mutual contempt Popular defiance monarchy further evident traditional Afghan saying Harkasi Padshah kohdash Every Absence unified Afghan howeVer prevent Afghan state Indeed foundations modern state historic jirga tribal assembly Kandhar named Ahmed Shah Saddozai first ruler Afghanistan This Was beginning Durrani Pusthun dynasty which At height would extend Persia TABLE I MAJOR ETHNIC GROUPS IN AFGHANISTAN GROUP LOCATION Pushtun Mostly south southeast Tajiks North northeast Kabul region Hazaras Center Kabul Uzbaks North Aimaq West Farsiwan West South Turkmen North rahui Southwest Baluch West northwest Nuristani East Source Anthony Hyman Afghanistan under SoietDomihation II CVR Delhi given Khurasan After Ahmed Shah death however Khurasan disintegrated array tribal princely states By decentralization complete British chronicler Mountstuart Elphinstone mistakenly exclaimed These people their country I In their ignorance British themselves Khurasan In Afghanistan first egotiations between British Persians This something misnomer however since Afghans Pushtuns ethnic group among within present Afghanistan Colonialism Khurasan It fundamental impact country economic development The imperial encounter world capitalist system explains Ghani We state without national economy Specifically Afghan rulers worried about danger foreign intervention during period rejeced British attempts build railroad across Afghanistan A locked country Afghanistan forced goodwill neighbors external trade A breakdown relations subsequent closing border Pakistan 1960s example factor Afghan government increased reliance Soviet economic during decade leading Communist SOURCES OF ST ATE POWER Afghan nationalism gaining momentum throughout century especially decade fueled foreign intervention British Russian moves dominate country redraw borders earlier century example nationwide resistance adoption national national national anthem The Soviet occupation Afghanistan 1980s further united country internal force Says Roy Afghanistan became nation state because buffer Muhannnad Taraki Babrak Farmal Hafizulah C state Another unifying force Afghan society religion Virtually Afghans Moslems percent Sunni Shia The mosque center every Afghan village virtually leaders whether tribal state claim adherence Islam source legitimacy Even Communist PDPA Democratic Party Afghan People government adopted Islam official religion state Ironically Communist government Ministry Islamic Affairs became first religious office Afghanistan history The PDPA built mosques Kabul renovated throughout country Defense homeland closely religious belief Afghanistan Sayyed Mousavi scholar University Oxford Land religious meaning Us cannot separated Attack attack religion Despite Communist party attempt champion Islam therefore Soviet occupation Afghanistan enabled opponents regime legitimize their resistance declaring traditional Islamic jihad against foreign infidels invaded fatherland Thus while Islamic fundamentalists played marginal MAP III SOVIET ADVANCE INTO AFGHANISTAN Central Asian Military Turkestan Military District asnKenz District L Ashkabad INDIA PAKISTAN CVR Afghan society before occupy dominant position among U S backed Mujahedin Pakistan Another source legitimacy forAfghan rulers tribal identification Ahmed Shah Pushtun tribe His enthronement creation Pushtun tribal dynasty Afghanistan Furthermore within Pushtun tribe kings certain clans Saddozai family until andthe Muhammadzai family until The present government Kabul Najib Pushtun Likewise U S created Afghan Interim Government Pakistan dominated members Pushtun Tajik tribes rejected attempts other ethnic groups Sh religious sects participate future Afghan government These tribal divisions again fragmentation Afghan society threat external intervention passed THE TIES THAT BIND TRIB AL DIVISIONS IN AFGHANISTAN No national census exists Afghanistan estimates population range between million million Almost percent population lived villages million nomads nearly million lived urban center Kabul MAP IV CENTERS OF AFGHAN OPPOSITION 1980s HIGHWAY tAIRFIELDS AREFUGEE CAMPS PASS AFGHANISTAN Miles CVR population split among different ethnic groups Afghanistan ethnic diversity another consequence country experience ancient invasion immigration noted Robert Canfield The Indo Aryan peoples ancient times occupied region called Afghanistan invaded mostly north kinds people anyone count peoples whose identities known vaguely familiar Scythians Massagetae Sakas Dards Huns Ephthalites In recent Arabs Turks Mongols Persians invaded region These diverse kinds people passed through trapped territory And behind melange phenotypic features tongues customs extant modern Afghanistan The ethnic Afghanistan further complicated artificial boundaries country created outside powers Louis Dupree famous Afghan scholars century explains Few ethnic groups indigenous All Pushtun example Afghan citizens Almost equal number Tribal Agencies North West Frontier Province Pakistan Tajik Uzbak Turkoman Kirghiz their CE Soviet Socialist Republics Soviet Union Most inhabitants extreme western Afghanistan geographically culturally extension Iranian Plateau simply Persian speaking Farsiwan Baluch hwestern corner Afghanistan northwestern Pakistan southeastern Iran several large groups Turkoman U S S R Tribal variants translate roughly religious differences although there religious divisions within Generally however ethnic categories Tajik Pushtun imply Islamic Of Sunni Afshar tribe implies religious Imami Shia Hazara Sayyed ethnic groups either Imami Is mai1i Shia affiliation A Dooraunee Pushtun Villager Ars British engraving Inter ethnic rivalry traditionally strong between Pushtuns Afghans Pashtu speaking tribes country Pushtuns dominated Afghan government since Ahmed Shah power represent state Afghan society Between again until CVR Pushtu dominated government pursued policy discrimination against Shia Hazara groups central Afghanistan described ethnocide Moreover Pushtun tribes traditionally autonomy government control other ethnic groups including exemption taxes military service stipends return loyalty government The depth historical animosity between various tribes Afghanistan illustrated vividly Anthony Hyman quotes various sayings among different tribes From Pushtuns known Afghans Hazaras Hazaras Afghans Afghans whose Tajiks Equally venomous Tajik reference Mongoloid Hazaras puchuk noses common Hazara reference Pushtuns Afghan donkey There sides Afghanistan Barnett Rubin U S Institute Peace testimony before Congress May The country indeed undergone certain ideological polarization fundamental becoming stronger since Soviet troop withdrawal undergone process tribal ethnic sectarian political geographical economic urban rural cultural generational fragmentation CVR REGIONAL POWER STRUGGLES For nearly decade U S policy toward Afghanistan driven desire country Soviet military occupation Since glasnost Soviet withdrawal Afghanistan conflict become regional nature There major powers vying influence supplying weapons different factions Afghanistan United States Soviet Union Pakistan Saudi Arabia Iran Libya providing millions dollars Islamic fundamentalist Hezb Islami faction Mujahedin India providing technical support government Kabul In addition U S policy assisting Mujahedin under direction Saudi Arabia Pakistan Pakistan secret intelligence service ISI Deenbur A Siah Posh Kaffir nameo charge Nuristani drawn early distributing U S assistance Century Afghans policy known subcontracting According Barnett testimony before Congress Pakistan Army Chief Staff Gen Mirza Aslam Beg Afghan Islamic fundamentalist groups potential future liberation Pakistan Soviet Central Asia Moreover Barnett members U S government share Afghanistan become future operations involving future struggles Iran Central Asia CVR Another major regional actor Saudi Arabia which already percent flowing Mujahedin This promote establishment Saudi backed religious institut among Mujahedin Both Barnett Ghani futul proxy between Saudi Arabia Iran Afghanistan Barnett argue standing alliance between CIA Pakistani Saudi intelligence agencies ought broken unlikely other priorities region Both these agencies pursuing independent sectarian political goals Afghanistan sometimes resources SEARCH FOR A PEACEFUL SOLUTION The tangle conflicting interests Afghanistan bodes quick peace settlement immediate return Afghan refugees their homeland Yet picture first appears AMIR SHER ALl BETWEEN HIs TWO NEIGHBOURS Afghanistan faced interference neighkrs illustzated artoon commenting Second Jknglo Afghan War CVR World attention focused elsewhere particularly U S military Saudi Arabia possible against Iraq As result there greater incentive United States Soviet Union extricate themselves conflict Central Asia The stationing U S military forces Saudi territory undermine authority Saudi religious leaders among Mujahedin Already there signs United States Soviet Union nearing agreement region policy known negative symmetry Considering million Afghans armed superpowers might consider reduce existing weapons stockpiles Soviet ficials indicated might negotiate withdrawal existing armaments negative symmetry Another proposal offer Afghans various development tools tractors seeds exchange The diversion superpower attention resources gives Afghans opportunity negotiate among themselves Des history ethnic strife Afghanistan tradition conflict resolution based institutions theaJirga elders Tere suggestions roundtable SCUSSiOn under United Nations auspices comprised leaig Afghans agree government Other proposals include return aging Zahir Shah exiled Rome creation government comprised reginal field commanders inside Afghanistan Recently reports suggests Secret peace talks underway between various Mjaedi leaders Najib Whatever future clear foreign power peace settlement Afghanistan The Afghan people years tremendous personal national sacrfice right determine their International financial assistance needed people rebuild their country But biggest contribution outside world peace Afghanistan knowing graceful SOURCES FOR MAPS AND DRANINGS FigureI FortofAli MusJid AlexanderBurnes Cabool BeinqaPersonalNarrative Jo urne7 Resident Ci John Mrray London Figure River Indus Sir Richard Temple A Bird E pictures India Chatto Windus London Figure3 MenwhonadetheCoup rSayedasseaReshtia ThePriceofLiberty Aziende Tipografiche Rome Figures Engzavings Afghans Mountstuart Elphinstone ACC OUt Kinqdom Caubul Oxford University Press Figure Punch Cartoon Reshtia MAP II ETHNIC GROUPS II AFGHANISTAN Louis DuPree Afqhanistan Princeton University Press princeton N J MAP III SOVIET ADVANCES Mark Urban War I Afqh MacMillan Press London MAP IV CENTERS OF OPPOSITION Anthony Hyman Afqhani Under So Dominationt MacMillan Press London TABLE I ETHNIC GROUPS IN AFGHANISTAN Hyman Cit Ii FOOTNOTES Arnold Toynbee quoted Hyman Thomas E Gouttierre Director Center Afghanistan Studies University Nebraska Omaha Interview September Rubin Approximately refugees returned Afghanistan since start Operation Salaam Source Michael Keating former U N official Interview November See Barnett R Rubin testimony before Commission Security Cooperation Europe U S Congress May U S Institute Peace Ashraf Ghani associate professor anthropology The Johns Hopkins University Interview November Olivier Roy Islam Rsistance Afqhanistan Cambridge University Press Chapter Ibid I0 Sayyed Mousavi University Oxford scholar Personal interview November I0 Elp hinstone Qp Ii Roy Raja Anwar The Traqedy Afqhanistan Verso London Mousavi The close relationship between religion illustrated Hadith message prophet Mohammed Hub Watan Iman Loving homeland religion faith Barnett R Rubin The Fragmentation Afghanistan Foreiqn Affairs Winter Robert L Canfield Ethnic Regional Sectarian Alignments Afghanistan The State Reliqion Ethnic Politics Afqhanistan Iran Pakistan edited A Banuazizi M Weiner Syracuse Syracuse University Press DuPree Robert Leroy Canfield Faction Conversion Plural Society Religious Alignments Hindu Kush Anthropoloqica Papers No University Michigan Ann Arbor Canfield Afghanistan Social Identities Crisis paper presented Colloques Internationaux Le Fait Ethnique Iran En Afghanistan Editions DNRS Paris Hyman Rubin Ibid I Rubin testimony before U S Congress Ghani International Herald Tribune November Received Hanover