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1/1/2000 - Refugees and Ironies by Marc Michaelson

Refugees Ironies GAMBELA Ethiopia January ByMarc Michaelson Imagine yourself middle refugee Look around senses What What people shelters Take breathand scents Tune sounds Howdoestheplacefeel theatmosphere themood Before traveling three refugee camps Western Ethiopia I similar exercise Iclosedmyeyes WhatdidIexpecttosee smell Ipicturedmalnourishedpeople languishing inmakeshift shanties ofrickety sticksandblueUNHCRtarpaulins Cloudsofsmoke orperhapsmist hovered thecamp blockingout thesunandcreating suffocating eerinessand claustrophobia I smelled bland porridge urine staleness From several direc tions Icouldhearchildrencrying nottheusualdroneofkids allaroundthis country throatier persistent pained howling The environment waspolluted dirty pitiable theatmospherereekedofhopelessness In Fugnido Bong Sherkole refugee camps these preconceptions wereshattered WhatIfoundwasnoutopia butnolivinghelleither Thephysi living conditions these campswere quite decent nothing I imagined Irony ServicesandInfrastructure RefugeeAccess LocalNeglect TheUNHCR UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees inter nationalagencymandatedtolook after refugees IncollaborationwiththeEthio pianGovernment sARRA Administration forRefugeeandReturnee Affairs UNHCRprovides funding ensure refugees access basic necessi water shelter andsocialservices health education socialworkers UNagencies arewidelycriticized forbeinginefficient cumbersomebureau cracies little concrete results their extensive efforts bloatedbudgets I veobserved severalUNagencies instudied inaction UNHCR different Theagencyisdoingaverydecentjob ofcaringforsouthernSudanese refugees these three camps In thecamp infrastructures exceed those available inneighboring villages GambelaDistrictisfertile apotentialbreadbasketofEthiopia Thesoilis richandwaterresourcesareplentiful ifnotexcessive seasonalfloodingiscom But Gambela distant peripheries Ethiopian polity WesternEthiopiaishometofourrefugeecamps thethree visitedandDimma These campshouse southernSudanese refugeesm30 inFugnido Bonga inSherkoleand9 226inDimma atotalofjustover70 UNHCRStatisticsasof1 January tanceorgovernmentprograms They forgotten selves ERITREA OSan Asmara O SUDAN Tana Bong Fugnido Dimma Fudolf IEN Denakil Plain ETHIOPIA oAddis Ababa Mo decent southern kilometers KENYA Sudanese miles I remains extremely marginalized country Farmers primitive cultivation niques services available towns woefully underdeveloped Facilities camps exceed those gional capital Gambela Take water example The muddy Baro River flows briskly through Gambela testifying unrecognized potential The Baro servesasafocalpointoftownlife itisusedforpublic bathing clothes washing animal watering sprimary source drinking water BaroRiverwaterisnotpotable butthetown spiped watersystemhasn tworkedproperlyforyears somesay never worked Baro Gambelans drink Bycomparison SudaneserefugeesinFugnido Bongaand Sherkole camps reliable access clean water pumped expensive boreholes Refugee status guaranteed basic services attention international community Local Ethiopians neglected theyrarelybenefitfrominternationalassis Leave regional capital thesocial infrastructuregapbetween Ethiopian peasants Sudanese refugees becomes nounced Farmers rural Gambela Region little access health facilities schools trained social workers after themost vulnerable Each refugeecampshas SOMALIA health center staffedby doctor nurse qualified pharma laboratory technician Each several primary schools andthanks tointernationalnon ernmentalorganizations manyrefu access school adult literacy vocational train All ofthese resourceshavebeen harnessed little country civilwarandsoughtrefuge Ethiopia The camps certainly paradise facili tiesareexcellentbyruralAfricanstandards Rarelyifever canonefindsuchaconcentrationofservices available peasants In instances infrastructures function nectors between refugees locals They trade other outdoor markets celebrate other during religious festivals weddings In Fugnido young refugees attend Ethiopian second school locals better equipped ealthcenterinthecamp Throughsuchinteraction locals built relationships andbecome connected However warped distribution resources unusual status ofrefugeeshas createdsomethingof mutual jealousy between locals The locals areworkinghard strugglingtoekeoutanexistence Next doortheyseerefugeessittingidly receivingfreemonthly rations being provided water education OneUNICEFstaffmember whowasstayinginthetown sbesthotelatthesametime wasthere describedthedilemmahe facedwhenheturnedontheshoweronemorning Istoodconfused lookingfirstatthecoffee coloredwaterandthenatmy tryingtodecide If gotintotheshower wouldIemergecleanerordirtier UNHCRdoes attempt providesome services toneighboring communities minimize tensionsbetween groups The WFP WorldFoodProgram islikewiseexploringjointrefugee localpilotprograms roadconstruction sothatbenefits accrue toboth groups However theprimary target ofboth agencies refugees naturally continue receive majority resources MM indigenous Nuers Gambelatown seemtohave sussed worlds They Ethio piantownsandvillages allegedlyregisterasrefugees tobenefitfrommonthlyfood rations Since these ethnic groups onboth sides theborder theyarevirtually impossible distinguish Howcan differ between Sudanese Nuer Ethiopian Nuer One ARRA official claims screening process weeds fraudulent regis trants asking specific questions about place origin their borden But Nuers highly mobile travel frequently Sudanandcouldeasilypass Sunset Baro River Gambela simple litmus tests health facilities The villagers silent witness alltheattentionandfavorabletreatmentbestowedonthe foreignerslivingintheirmidst TheyseetheLandcruisers truckloads ofgrainpassingthembyandmustwon derwhythey whyno helping Likewise refugees villagers elusiveness freedom They people homes tools stock Theysee theirEthio neighbors memories their previous lives control their destinies could landscape freely their cattle harvest fruits their labor For theyareshackledwithin boundaries denied dignity andforced subsistonmea handouts The refugees trapped Sudan permitted Ethiopia They areunwantedguests existing neither there state withsomeprivileges butfew rights WhileIdidn thavetimetopursuedirectevidence registration fraud allegations plausible Fugnido feels empty larger number people living there Onthe surface Fugnido lookslikeapristineruralvillage attractivelocaltukuls arewell spacedandwell Butsomethingfeels wrong Fugnido skeleton shadow Some locals including Primary school class Fugnido Institute ofCurrentWorld Affairs villagethanalivingcommunity Fugnido seemspartiallyabandoned andthismay wellbebecausemanyofthe registered refugees actually reside there Irony Refugee FeedingPrograms InstitutionalizingDisincentives There generally accepted proach third world development Don create dependency reward idleness empower people giving themthe skillsand capacities toprovide forthemselves Thestrategyisexpressed byacommonproverb Giveamanafish today Teach lifetime This principle blatantly disre gardedbymuchrefugee programming Refugeesareconsideredvictimsofemer Tukuls Fugnido WFPhas noted deficiencies inBonga inAugust raised daily rationfrom calories person themaximumprovidedtopeopleinemergencies sumingtheyhavenoothersourcesofnourishment Ifthisentireprovi sionisconsumed itisenoughtomeetnutritionalneeds However someofthefood issoldtobuyothernecessities WFP Ethiopiaplanstoconductafood securitysurveyinthenearfuturetoassessconsumptionratesanddeterminehowits assistance couldbe combinedwith other initiatives ensure refugee foodneeds fully MM gencies receive humanitarian assistance foodaid Suchprogramsenablethosefacingdirecircum stancesto survive Butallrefugee situations arenotequal Rapid reaction relief programs appropriate emergencies occurred Rwanda Ko where hundreds thousands people neighboring countries ZaireandAlbania matter Longer institutionalized refugees those FugnidoandSherkoleneeddifferentforms ofassistance andmoreinnovativedevelopmentalprograms Manyof themhavelivedincampsfor tenormoreyears theSudanese civilwarthatbroughtthemhereshowsno signs bating The refugees subsist handouts actively discouraged providing their livelihoods They given backyard garden plots tosupplementtheir diets denied larger plots farming In Sudan these refugees working pastoralists Now being trans formedintounwillingwelfarerecipients Iaskedseveral refugees Ifyoucouldchangeonethinginthiscampthat wouldchangeyourlife forthebetter whatwoulditbe Almostunanimously theresponsewas giveus wecangrow ourownfood Despite plentiful avail ability cultivable Ethiopian government authoritieshave repeatedlyignored refugee requests farmland In rations sometimes arrived peciallyduringrainyseasonswhen slickclayroadsbe unpassable Expatriates working Bonga saythefoodsituationwasextremelydesperatein Refugees starving These logistical snags parentlybeenworkedout WFPisnowstoringatleast athree monthfoodsupp lyineachcamptocover delays Such contingency plans notwithstanding Bonga refugees planning ahead renting landfromlocalpeasantsandothers crossthenearbyriver empty lands Strictly speaking these refugee farms illegal butuntilnowthey vebeentoleratedby local authorities After recent experiences hunger refugees Bonga supplemental farming matter survival Irony ARRA ProtectorandPredator TheEthiopianGovernment sARRA Administration Refugee Returnee Affairs coordinates services ARRAmanages refugee camps distrib coordinates social psycho social services WFPsign Sherkole Whydoes Ethiopiangovernment refuse grant farmland refugees SomeARRAstaff deflected questions saying theyhave forwarded requests regional national government authorities haven received anyresponse Others explain Ethiopiangovernmentwants prevent deforestationand doesn twant refug settle permanently These soundmore rationalizations authentic explanations Mostlikely Ethiopiangovernment doesn twant disrupt international refugee welfare system Refugee assistancesupplies infrastructure jobsmis extremely lucrative ARRAreceivesconsiderablecompensationfordistributingfoodandthushas littleincentivetoencouragerefugee sufficiency InstituteofCurrentWorld Affairs refugees mediates between refugees locals ARRAinforms refugees oftheirrights tofoodwater shelter healthcareandeducation andtheirresponsibilities toabide Ethiopianlaws respect local traditions ARRAdoes cannot isolation The agencyisheavilydependentuponits partners first andforemostUNHCR butalso ahost ofotherUNagen international governmental organizations These partners provide inputs bills whileARRAimplements coordinates ARRAis responsible fortheprotectionofrefugees In Sudan thesepeoplewereper secuted either suspicious government troops rauding rebel forces cases They watchedtheirrelativesslaugh tered their forcibly scripted theirhouses communities destroyed Some additionally economic refugees terror lence having pounded drought exacerbated hunger For theserefugees Ethiopiarepre sents reprievefromwarand haven InonesenseARRAis their guardian their protector But there ARRAas Several apparatus ARRA merely benign humani tarian outfit security Ethio government Its mandate provide refugees monitor control andpunishthemwhentheystep outof DuringmyvisittoFugnidocamp severalrefugees refused They appeared apprehen visibly scared Whatdid theyhave Later Irealizedthat itmayhavebeenthepresenceofmy guide translator anARRAstaffmember Thiswould equivalent visiting Nicaraguan village ablesourcesquicklyre ARRA sfirstmakeshiftoffice foreground andnew vealed ARRA security UNHCR funded office right Sherkole MM 1980switha localguide thathadCIAstamped onhis forehead Actually first experience Fugnido reinforcedthissuspicion IarrivedinFugnido afewkilometersoutsidethecamp colleaguesfromUNHCRand anAnuaktrans latorfromGambela Inadditiontovisitingthecamp Ihadhopedtointerviewsomepeasantsinthetown thatpurposehadbroughtmyindigenous Anuakfriend Itwaslunchtimeandallofficeswere doseduntil3p sowesetoffonawalkthrough Just meters Landcruisers pulled usandtheoccupants Getin Onewasour UNHCRfriend otherwas fromARRA TheARRAfolks saidwe thaveper mission towalkaround wewouldhave first I found peculiar sinceARRAisonlysupposedtoberesponsible foraffairsinsidethecamps AndIhaveaperm issionlet terfromtheEthiopiangovernmentenablingmeto travel anywherein country except sensitivewarzones TigrayandAfar As turned myAnuak guide belonged oppositionpoliticalparty Whenthe districtgovernment authoritiessawmewalkingintownwithhim sumedwewereoutto stirup trouble TheytoldARRA ARRA acting securityagency notrefugee affairs department Soonaf apologized exhibited strained hospitality nature their already trayed ashadthe acutelysensitive stateoflocalpolitics MyencounterwithARRAsecuritywas relatively harmless However I heard allegations serious transgressions Insome camps ARRAstaff threatenand punishrefugeesviciously InSherkoleonemanallegedly received lashes informing international UNHCRstaffmember ofcertainARRAabuses Fright refugees maintain silence regarding their treatment fearing retribution reveal ARRA corruptio Theallegations ofARRAfraudandmismanagement T Shirts distributed Sherkole takemanydifferentforms Insomecases refugeerations taxed byARRAstaff andaretheneitherconsumed orresold ARRAfield staffalso inflateefugeenumbers bygivingfamilies extrarationcards andthentakingthe surplus andbytruckinginnon refugees registration during revalidationprocesses Somerefugeeshavebeen forced include relatives ofARRAstaffon their settlement applications under threat theywould otherwisebe denied Perhaps seriously ARRA allowed SPLA Sudan People Liberation Army rebel group these originally enter camps recruit youngfighters ARRAis functional contradiction It simul taneously protector predator It serves sustainsrefugeesbutalso extractsfromtheirscantallow ances ARRAlooksoutfortheirinterestsandalsowatches through security apparatus It shields their homeland flicts other forms abuse their asylum The ofARRA securityoperationandtheextentof abuses difficult uncover understand International organizationstaffworkingwithrefugees Ethiopia express frustration choice throughARRA theyknow agency Mypersonal experiences withARRAstaffwere quite mixed As these stories fromFugnido ARRAcanbe quite suffocating They letmeout their sightand stifledmyability collect information stories freely However SherkoleARRAallowedmetowalkaround thecamp alone ARRAstafffrankly discussedcampproblems encouragedme totalktowhomever wanted withoutanyARRAstaffpresence Thisrelativeopennessgavemethesensethattherewasless tohideinSherkolethaninFugnido alsofoundsomeARRAregionalandnationalauthoritiestobehelpful earnestand caring Therefore expressconcernsofARRAabusesinthissection I dliketoemphasizethattheagencyisnotmono lithicmithasbothpositive negative impacts onthe lives refugees Until recently Ethiopiangovernment actively supported theSPLArebellion againstSudan Islamistgovernment north Since outbreak Ethiopian Eritreanborder alignmentshave shifted Ethiopian government relationswithKhartoumhavewarmedconsiderably ItisunclearwhethertheEthiopiangovernmentcontinuestosupportthe SPLA Institute ofCurrentWorld Affairs AccordingtoWFP snutritionalsurveys malnutritionratesinthewesterncampshaverecentlydeclinedconsiderably In malnutritionratesinBongaandSherkoleweretermed serious andthesituationinFugnidowas alarming By1999 theserateshadgreatlyimprovedmBongaandFugnidoare andSherkoleis satisfactory Suchstudiesshowimpor tantpositivetrends butmanyrefugees stillcomplainthattheyarenotreceivingenough norasufficientvarietyof foodstuffs MM helper hindrance welfare Irony Cultural Sensitivity Cultural Dislocation The trauma causes perma psychological scars Sudanese never forget horrors experienced witnessed Much dramatic perhapsmore endur gradual social dislocation camplife theunravelingoftraditions dilution ofculture reordering social relations forgotten means agriculturalsubsistence Andforthe camps social pactmaybethe greatest Camplife They being raised artificialconstruct atemporarycommu created shelterandprotectthem butnotteachthemhow relate tothe Howwill generation repatriation After themostpressing considerations daily vival refugeesexpresseddeepconcernabouttheimpact ofcamplifeontheir culture Somecustomsarepreserved throughmechanismsofself governance Eachcamphas refugee Central Committee maintains liaison tween refugees ARRA other agencies These Central Committees meant mobilize dents forprograms resolve minor disputes Fugnido Central C ommittee members described their efforts toadaptSudanesetraditions tocampgover nance Take handling adultery cases With living cramped conditions temptation extra marital affairs great Among Sudanese tribes especially those where marriage isasacredtransactionfortifiedbypaymentof dowry adultery extremely serious offense But withmore dozen tribes living camps thorny cross cultural adultery cases resolved William Deng General Secretary Fugnido Camp Central Committee explains We traditionallawinourculture inourvillages Weuse Webring offendingmanhere andpunishhim We husband compensation doesn revenge In recent webrought themanhere Inourtraditionwecharge sixcowsforadultery buthere thecampwehave fewer So wetold family ofthe offender theymustpaytwo Wecalledboth husband offender office discussed thecaseuntilwesolved Othertraditionshavealsoadapted Forexample InstituteofCurrentWorld Affairs Younggirls Sherkolecamp riagedowriesof30cattleormorehavenowbeenloweredtoa cattle IOU The husband agrees dowry return Sudan undetermined future Despite cultural sensitivity ofcamp governance artificial constructs causing serious socialandculturalrifts RefugeesinFugnidoandSherkole diverse ethnic groups Most lived intheirownspacious areas ofSudan oftenfarfrom othertribesandevenfairlydistantfromneighborsoftheir owntribe Nowtheyare alltossedtogetherintoonemulti ethnicmeltingpot Dinkas Anuaks Nuers Uduks Funge Mabane close quarters camps Sherkole divided tribally based zones ZoneAisAnuak Zones B D EareMabane ZoneCis mixed includingmorethan smallerminoritygroups andZoneFisNuer Butsuchexclusivedomainsare ficial throughoutd ailylifeallthegroupsmix onthe streets schools health centers programs This mixing several socio cultural affects positive negative Certainly there richness borne diversity shared experience However several these groups historical emies The Dinka Nuer pastoral peoples foughtandraidedeachotherfor centuries TheNuerand Anuak their ownbitter rivalries These conflicts simply vanish camps stand ingtensionscanbecomenewlyactivatedandexplodeinto episodes violence Forthemostpart thegroupsliveinrelativeharmony tolerant difference Dafallah Eissa Zayid Vice Chair Sherkole Central Committee proud Sherkole showing tribal zones committee achievement creating peaceful sphere inthecamp Whileinfrequentoutburstsdoerupt experienceinSherkoletends tosupportDafallah claim Themoodislightandfreeofseriousoverttensions The ubling social impacts subtle Strong cultural identities diluted people especially youth interact camps As Changkuoth young Nuer observed Many equal respect their elders anymore In traditionalUdukfamilysuchbroadconceptionsofequal cultural taboos Habil Zake Bonga laments young people elders enter tlistentowhattheirelders tellthem Generational conflict reinforced leadership The Central Commit relatively young formally cated ARRA requires Committee membersspeaksomeEnglish sotheycancom municatewithARRAandUNHCRstaff Such requirements exclude elders Central Committees displacing their author subverting their traditional decision making dispute resolution roles The younger generationhasusurpedpowerin refugee community elders pushed thebackground An other source cultural stress comfort comes simple settlement The Nuer Dinka pastoralists cattle seasonally search grazing lands water As herders deprived cattle pastoralists denied mobility theNuerandDinka entary refugees almost cease Nuer Dinka Refugee status ables physically survive decimates their traditional style Social laziness drunk enness stealing flourish poverty filled camps Bored hungry young capes Suchproblemstendto affectmen thanwomen Evenin camps women collect water firewood clothes after children their villages Female refugees sourceful their families While menareforced intoidleness womenmaintainextremely heavyworkloads Idleness scourge could easily solved Young itching things vancedstudies vocationaltraining farming Allitwould administrative flexibility small fusion resources Lack creativity willing break standardized refugee Fugnido Central Committeemember In The Nuer British anthropologistEE Evans Pritchard notes nature ofNuer conflicts withneighboring groups The attitude ofNuer toward their relations neighbouringpeoples influencedbytheir cattleand their desire toacquirethem Theyhaveprofoundcontemptforpeopleswithfeworno cattle liketheAnuak whiletheirwarsagainst Dinkatribeshavebeendirectedtoseizureofcattleandcontrolofpastures MM programming appears greater constraint limited resources For example severalyoungmenexpressed desire tocontinue theirstudies andpointedoutthatsomerefu university trained teachers An informal managed school study group could easily ormedunder sprawling shade All isneeded afewbooksto guide learning somenotebooks smallheap ofencouragement Abit creative programming would waytoward restoring refugee pride respect They opportunities large scale enterprises ormassiveprojects butsmallchancestobringnewmean their lives Theyneed activities thatallowthemto retake responsibility their welfare remind themthat people notjust refugees helpless victims Such initiatives thebest canbe expected theshort NothinglessthantheendofSudan tracted civil enable refugees return their homes start For managing refugees thankful little survivingadifficultlifeladenwithirony G Institute Current World Affairs MM A AHistoryofEthiopia AbaAre AbdeI Aziz Abdi Ali Bayr Mohamoud Abebaye Dad Abraham Kinfe Adam Abdi llahi Adaytu AddisAbaba AddisAbabaCivilServiceCollege Addis Pharmaceutical Factory Adi Murug Bada Adigrat Adua adult literacy adultery Aeroflot Afa assey Afabet Afar Afar Region Afar conflict Afar peace meeting Afeworki Isaias African Renaissance Afwerki Isaias Agence France Presse Agere Maryam Agew dependency Aideed Mohamed Farah Air Tajikistan Akli Mohamed Al ltihad Islamic fundamentalists Al lttihad Alaybede Albania Alemayu ALF Afar Liberation Front Alga Aliteina Aliteina Allemitu Ambesete Geleba Amhara Amharic amnesty Andemichael Wereda Annan Kofi Anuak Anuaks appropri technology Aptidon Hassan Gouled Arab producing countries Arap Moi Daniel ArbaMinch Ark Covenant ARRA Administration Refugee Returnee Affairs Arsi Province AskYourDoctor Asmara Asmara Asmara airport bombing Asmerom Girma Assab Assab economy Assab Oil Refinery Assab Port AssabSaltWorks assembly Ato Gebre Egziabehr Auberay Awasa Awash Awash Meeting Awash River Aweke Aster Awel Dewalle Axumite empire Axumite Kingdom Ayder Primary School azmaribeyts traditionaldancebars baboons Bada SeealsoAdi Murug Badime Badime front Badime trenches Bagoweini village Bahir Da Gojjam Region Bale National Park Bale Province banking barabaso rubber sandals barefoot doctors Barentu Baro River Barre Mohamed Siad Bashuka BBC begging Belgium Benishangul Berbera Bichiok Changkuoth blood prices BM rocket launchers Bole Bole airport Boqole Borama Britain British Council library Bulgaria Burao Burie Burkina Faso C casualties battle casualty reports cattle children China Christianity Citizens Peace Eritrea CPE civil differences Clinton Bill CNN coffee coffee ceremony Colobus monkeys colonial COMESA Economic Community East Southern Afric States communications conflict management conspiracy theories Constitution Constitution construction contracts contraband contraceptives corruption counterfeit currency detector courts crocodile CRS Catholic Relief Services culture currency customary customs duties Dabayl Dallol Airlines Debre Zeyit Deda Dekamhare Deliberative Chambers DembeJefecke village Denakil Desert Denden mountain Deng William deportation deportees Derg dictatorship Derg government Derg DhuNwas Dinkas diplomatic recognition Dire Dawa Dire Dawa Conference Dire Dawa Regional Customs Director General Marine Department Ministry Transportation Communica Djibouti DKT Ethiopia doctors Dolo Mena dorowot spicychickenstew drought drunkenness Dubai Duftir Durexcondoms EC European Community economic development economy education Education Bureau Egal Mohamed Ibrahim Egypt EPDM Ethiopian Peoples Democratic Movement Ephrem Isaac Ephrem Sebhat EPLF Eritrean People Liberation Front EPRDF Ethiopian People Revolutionary Democratic Front Erde Mattios Eritrea Eritrea Profile Eritrean Defense Force Eritrean military Eritrean Pride Eritrean Public Health Program Eritrean women Eritrean Women Association Eritrea Youth Association ERREC Eritrean Relief Refugee Commission Ethiopia Ethiopia Eritrea border conflict Ethiopia Somalia border Ethiopian Airlines Ethiopian Enterprise Petroleum Ethiopian mobilization Entries refertoICWALetters MM andpage withLetternumbergiven beforeeachpageentry InstituteofCurrentWorld Affairs Ethiopian Orthodox Church Ethiopian Somali Democratic League ESDL Ethiopian Telecommunications Authority Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation ethnic cleansing Ethnic Federalism ethnic groups Amhara Banar Gamo Gedeo Gofa Guji Hamer Karo Konso Mursi Nara Oromo Sidama Expo Ezana F famine Fatzi Federalism Ethnic female soldiers ferenji foreigner Fessehai Habteab feuds Yemeni style Follina France fraud mismanagement Freedom Junior Secondary School Freemen Montana FugnidoCampCentralCommittee Funge Gadamaytu Galab Hassan Gambela District Gambela Gamo GofaProvince Gash Barka Region Gawane Gebremariam Berhane genital mutilation geography Ghebray Tekeste Ghebretnsae Woldemichael Ginir Goba Gode Gojjam Gojjam Province gomen spinach GonderProvince Gouled Aptidon Hassan Grassroots International Greater Hanish Greater Tigray green Guinea Bissau Gullele Gurage Gurage Region guurti elders conferences Guurti HouseofElders H Habtekere Gebreneguse Hamdalla Nursabo Hamud Fille Hanish Islands Harar Haraz Harmaz Hargeisa hartebeest Hartisheikh health facilities health professionals Heret village highland peoples HiwotTrustcondoms Hubi Hamadu Ali human rights human attacks hydroelectric power ICRC International Committee Red Cross idleness infrastructure injera bread fermented batter Inter Governmental Authority Development IGAD intermarriage International Committee Red Cross ICRC International Court Justice Italian colonization Italy lyasu Lijj J Janmeda Japan Jijiga Jijiga Customs Office Jijiga Nurse Training school Jinka Kagame Paul kaiwot meatinpeppersauce Kallala bddge Karchally prison Kazanchis kebele Iocal government Kebre Beyih Kebre Dehar Kenya Key Afer Khartoum kickbacks King Caleb King Ezana kitfo ground spiced butter Koka Dam Kolmay village Kombolcha Konso Kosovo Koytobia L labor supply Lake Anthony lakes Abaya Bishoftu Chamo Lalita Humud Land Latvia Legesse Asmarom Libya styles livestock livestock thefts lowland peoples Luwin Pipi Mabane machiato espresso Maduk Mach Mago National Park Mahdi Ali market mamitay little Marcus Harold Mariam Mengistu Haile marriage dowries marriages masinko traditional string violin Massawa media Megennanya Mehare Zait Meisso Mekelle Mekonnen Yigzaw Menelik Menelik Mengist Saba Mengisteab Dawit Mereb River Meretab merkato Mig helicopters Mig interceptors Ministry Defense Ministry Foreign Affairs Ministry Information missir lentils Mitchell Leslie Mituku Aboosh Mogadishu Mombasa Moyale Mubarak Hosni Mulki Museveni Yoweri N nalda Nakfa National Committee Somali Region Trade Promotion NCSRTP national parks ndemin adderu morning ndemin nachu Nebiyou Hanna Miss Ethiopia Nechisar National Park nepotism NGOs governmental organizations N igeria Nile River Nuer Nuers O OAU Organization African Unity OAU initiative OAU peace OgaAli Afar Ogaden Region OgadenWar Ogaden Welfare Society OWS OLF Oromo Liberation Front ONLF Odaden National Liberation Front OPDO Oromo People Democratic Organization Operation Restore Hope Operation Sunset Oromiya National Regional State Oromiya Region Oromo Liberation Front OLF Orotta P PACT Pan Somali project pastoralists peace plans MM Petros Col Bezabieh PFDJ People Front Democracy Justice Piazza pickpockets police population Djibouti Port Sudan school press press censorship press restrictions primary schools propa ganda prostitution Prudence brand family planning pills Purdy Chris Q Qaddafi Muammar Qatar R radio advertising Ras Hailu Gojjam Ras Mikhael Seul Red Sea Red SeaAirline refugee camps Bonga Fugnido Itang Sherkole refugee jealousy refugee repatriation Regassa Taddesse Region Regional Health Bureau Regional Parliament Regional Planning Bureau registration fraud religion Republic Somaliland Resolution respect elders Reuters Revolutionary School Rice Susan Rift Valley Fever Robinson Mary Romania Ruba Hadai Rubattino Shipping Company Russia Rwanda S Saha Battle Sahnoun Mohammed Said Hussein sales incentives Saneti Plateau Savannah Hotel Save Children Save Children UK Sawa national military training secondary school security Ethiopian government sedentary refugees Selassie Halle SEPDF Southern Ethiopian Peoples Democratic Front Setit Sewa Province Shabiya Shakur Abdi Shambuco Shashemene Sheba Sherkole Central Committee Institute ofCurrentWorld Affairs Shewa Shinn David traditional Somali congress shiro crushed chickpea sauce SidamoProvince Sidist Kilo Sierra Leone Sifreye Genet Silte village Simien smuggling Solomon Solomonic descent Solomonic Dynasty Somali Somali budget Somali clans Abgal Dulbahante Gadabursi Habr Awal Habr Ja HabrYonis Hawiye Isaaq Somali language Somali National Movement SNM Somali oratory Somali People Democratic Party SPDP Somali Region Somali Salvation Democratic Front SSDF Somali women Somalia Somalia Ethiopia border Somaliland Republic 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